The Stone Age: the Palaeolithic Period

The Stone Age: the Palaeolithic Period

Stone is the earliest example of prehistoric human culture that mankind has identified with some certainty. The period described as the Stone Age has been calculated as beginning about 2,000,000 BCE. During the Stone Age human society experienced the most fundamental changes, the most important of which was the massive yet lengthy transition from cave and rural dwelling and later to the more organised communities in towns and cities.

Along the way mankind evolved and in so doing gradually created and improved numerous technological developments. Whether we can refer to early creations such as spears as technological is debatable but they were certainly clever inventions for the time. However, whether clever or merely necessity, it was inevitable that society and technology did eventually evolve alongside each other.

The Stone Age was later perceived as being enormously long, and so was further sub-divided into three periods:

1. Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age                     (2,000,000 – 10,000 BCE)
2. Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age                (10,000 – 5,500 BCE)
3. Neolithic or New Stone Age                       (5,500 – 2,500 BCE)

Epochs

In geological terms, there are two epochs: The Pliocene and the Pleistocene.

The Pliocene geological epoch was prone to shifting continents. North and South America for example became linked through the Isthmus of Panama. This new formation created a mammoth global temperature change because the warmer currents of the aquatic ocean were effectively cut-off. (Pictured, a Pliocene fossil).

Thus, the temperature of the isolated Atlantic Ocean was made cooler by the cold Arctic and Antarctic. Consequently, the linkage of the north and south drastically altered the natural fauna of both; some fauna merged or were colonised into different areas.

Likewise, the collision of Africa and Asia brought about the existence of the Mediterranean Sea.

The North Sea rose substantially as the great sheets of ice melted and released their captive waters. In western Britain, a large chunk of land drifted away from the mainland and became what would be Ireland. From around 8,200 to 6,000 BCE the dry land-bridge joining Holland, East Anglia and Lincolnshire became salt marshes; which were gradually drowned by the sea, thus creating a separate Holland and England. Great Britain remained a part of Europe but as a separate, independent landmass.

The climate continued to fluctuate, especially in the Pleistocene geological epoch; and towards the end of the great ice age much of North America and Northern Europe, including Britain, remained covered by glaciers.

Since the ground was permanently frozen, vegetation was extremely scarce and Britain was effectively a wasteland.

Throughout the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age the ice gradually receded, but not completely, and there were occasional interglacial periods. During those warmer spells humans were tempted to venture back into Britain in search of food (mainly game). It is thought that Neanderthals settled in Britain in the late Palaeolithic period, roughly about 40,000 years ago and became extinct by 30,000 years ago and were replaced by the modern man.

Interestingly, a flint axe was found in what is thought to be one of the earliest English settlements; Happisburgh in Norfolk. The name of the settlement is derived from ‘Haep’s Burgh’, pronounced locally as ‘Hayeburrer’ or ‘Hayebruh’. The village now sits between Walcott and Sea Palling on the north east coast of Norfolk, almost half way between Cromer and Great Yarmouth. The axe is a spear-shaped hand axe which suggests that it belonged to the Acheulian culture of Northern France, although the oval design was used in tool making for over a million years.

Palaeolithic Period

The word Palaeolithic derives from the Greek – palaios (old) and lithikos (is relating to or composed of stone), which means ‘old age of the stone’ or ‘Old Stone Age’.

The Palaeolithic period is by far the longest era and was in essence the age of the human evolution. The Lower or oldest period was vastly longer than the Middle and Upper or Newest periods. The lower was also inhabited by early humans, whereas the Middle and Upper humans were classed as the modern mankind. Yet, when calculating the development of those humans, the Lower and Middle were slow to develop and the Upper was fast, which is a natural progression; mankind gradually learned more and developed more and therefore created more.

During the period as a whole the general diet was extremely limited; people hunted and gathered during the fluctuating climate of glacial cold and interglacial warmer periods. Thus, the temperature played a major role in how well they lived, or not. In the old period the people were cave dwellers who lived in small societies. They gradually developed in the middle and upper periods by creating a crude type of constructed shelters. They also fashioned simple stone tools, hence the name of Stone Age.

In the latter Palaeolithic periods they also made tools with wood, bone, leather and even vegetable fibre, but very few of those artefacts (Paleoliths) survived. The Palaeolithic period is distinguishable because of their use of knapped tools. Knapped means to chip or break up stone, flint and obsidian with sharp blows to shape them into tools. (Pictured, tools and weapons of the Palaeolithic period).

Obsidian is a fascinating glass-like substance which is classed as a mineraloid; a substance resembling a mineral but not exhibiting the transparency of clear glass. Indeed, it is a volcanic silica glass formed when volcano lava runs into water. As the water cools the larva rapidly produces a texture which forms translucent, shapeless igneous rocks which are often mistaken for quartz, but is softer than quartz. (pictured, an Obsidian arrowhead).

In the 1960s, excavations in Turkey unearthed Palaeolithic settlements when the Turkish government began to build dams, such as the Keban; indeed, they found a richness of Palaeolithic artifacts too.

Without written or artistic evidence, archaeology has been the principle source for information on the Stone Age, especially from the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods. Art and artefacts have also been found elsewhere; such as jewellery and rock arts at Stonehenge, and cave paintings in France. During the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic eras religious and spiritual artworks began to emerge, thought mainly to have used in burials.

Introduction to the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Periods

 Introduction to the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Periods

The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods are concerned with the fundamental developments in physical and cultural evolution which brought humanity from its very earliest hominin ancestry to a stage (the Neolithic) at which agricultural food production became the economic norm. These developments took place over an enormous extent of time – several million years – and against a backdrop of major climatic, geophysical, and ecological changes during the Pleistocene and early Holocene (Bell & Walker 2005).

                                                    There is still uncertainty about when people were first present on the land mass now known as Scotland. It is probable that inhabitation took place during the Lower Palaeolithic, of the same character as that for which there is accumulating evidence in southern Britain in the time range of as early as 700,000 to 500,000 years ago (Ashton et al. 2011; Pettitt and White 2012; Stringer 2006). Yet it is equally probable that evidence for such inhabitation will continue to elude archaeology, in particular because of the effects of major climatic events and geomorphological processes which have affected Scotland between then and now. Most significant in terms of the masking, disruption, and erosion of all earlier land-surfaces has been the last major glacial cycle, the Weichselian (Devensian), during which Scotland was completely submerged beneath ice at the Last Glacial Maximum.

                                                   In a sense, it is the Last Glacial Maximum which sets the archaeological clock ticking for Scotland, because it is only with the ameliorated conditions following this event that the survival of any archaeological residues in their contemporary or near contemporary, contexts can be expected. The date by which conditions favourable to human habitation in Scotland were in place is currently taken to be c.14.7 ka cal BP (12,700 cal BC), and there are now positive indications that people were here during the earlier stages of the Lateglacial Interstadial, probably by 14 ka cal BP (12,000 cal BC) if not sooner.

                                               Human presence during the Lateglacial may well not have been continuous, and it must be remembered that at this period Scotland was merely the outermost component of the north-west European peninsula, since much of what is now the southern North Sea was dry land (Doggerland). Humans, and the herds of animals on which they were primarily dependent for their livelihood, are likely to have roamed widely across this massive expanse of land and probably subsisted at quite low-level densities. Subsequently, during the rapid and extreme (but relatively brief) climatic downturn of the initial Younger Dryas (Loch Lomond Stadial) around 12.65 ka cal BP (10,700 cal BC), a possible complete depopulation episode for Scotland can be anticipated.

                                        Thereafter, however, a continuous human presence in Scotland can be envisaged, perhaps regularly reinforced with incomings as, with the progressive rises in sea-levels, the extent of Doggerland shrank and the available hunting grounds were reduced. Long before Britain was finally separated from the Continent around 6000 cal BC Scotland’s only land connection was with England, but by then Scotland had itself almost been split in two by the marine incursions in the Central Belt. In adaptive terms it is clear that ‘island-hopping’ was already well-developed in Scotland by the early Holocene, reflecting the increased importance of water-transport and an economic shift from reliance on large game to exploitation of seafood of all kinds.

                                                A distinguishing feature of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic archaeology of Scotland in contrast to that of all later periods is its low visibility – there are very few sites known by anything other than surface scatters of lithic artefacts. Palaeolithic and Mesolithic habitation evidence, apart from being relatively ephemeral in the first place, is far more vulnerable than that of any subsequent period to the vicissitudes of time and chance; such factors as glaciation, permafrost, changing sea levels and consequent inundation, coastal erosion, alluviation, peat growth, colluviation, and talus formation have all contributed to its destruction or concealment. This presents a massive challenge for researchers, but very significant advances in knowledge of these periods have occurred over the past decade or so. Hopefully, the formulation of the present research framework will lead to and underpin further increases in understanding over the coming decades.

PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC CULTURE

PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC CULTURE

Ashish kumar Sahu

Robert Bruce Foote established the science of pre-history in India when in 1863 he discovered the first Palaeolithis. Subsequently, in the next two decades many prehistoric sites were reported in the southern peninsula. But it was only in the 1930s when H.de Terra and T.T. Paterson undertook a detailed survey of Kashmir, Potwar and Jammu areas, that the prehistoric research gained importance and a number of archaeologists began focusing their attention on the discovery of new prehistoric sites, construction of cultural sequences and reconstruction of palaeo environments. By the 1960s Indian prehistorians could confidently divide the Palaeolithic industries of the Pleistocene (Ice-Age), into Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic on the basis of the shape, size and methods of manufacture of the principal artifact types.

Lower Palaeolithic: The Lower Palaeolithic is characterized by hand axes, cleavers, chopping tools, and related artefact forms. The tools were all made by removing flakes from a block or core of stone until it reached the required size and shape.

            Bori in Maharashtra is considered to be the earliest Lower Palaeolithic site. Lower Palaeolithic stone tools have also been found in the Soan valley (now in Pakistan), and several sites in Kashmir and the Thar Desert. These were known as the Soanian industries (while the artifacts found over much of the rest of India were known as Acheulian or ‘Madrasian’) and were dominated by pebble or core tools and characterized as a predominantly chopper/chopping tools. The Acheulian industries was characterized by bifacially flaked artefacts – hand axes and cleavers – along with denticulates, scrapers, spheroids, and picks amongst other tools. The Acheulian artefacts were made principally on hard and durable quartzites. In the Hunsgi valley of Karnataka, limestone was used; at Lalitpur in Central India, pink granite was chosen while in parts of Maharashtra and Central India basalt was preferred. Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh, desert area of Didwana in Rajasthan, Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh are some of the important sites which have yielded Lower Palaeolithic tools. The caves and rock shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal also show features of the Lower Palaeolithic age. Majority of Lower Palaeolithic artefacts found in all parts of the subcontinent are made of quartzite.

The rivers – Tapti, Godavari, Bhima and Krishna have yielded a large number of Palaeolithic sites.  The distribution of Palaeolithic sites is linked up with ecological variation like erosional features, nature of soils  etc. The Tapti trough has deep regur (black soil), and the rest of the area is covered mostly by medium regur. There is scarcity of Palaeolithic sites in the upper reaches of Bhima and Krishna. From Malprabha, Ghatprabha and affluents of the Krishna a number of Palaeolithic sites have been reported. In Ghatprabha basin in Karnataka Acheulian handaxes have been found in large numbers. Anagawadi and Bagalkot are two most important sites on the Ghatprabha where both early and Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found. The rivers Palar, Penniyar and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu are rich in Palaeolithic tools. Attiranmpakkam and Gudiyam (in Tamilnadu) have yielded both Early and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts like handaxes, flakes, blades, scrapers etc.

            Middle Palaeolithic:  Middle Palaeolithic industries are characterized by smaller and lighter tools based upon flakes struck from cores, which in some cases are carefully shaped and prepared in advance. There was an increase in the Levallois and discoidal core techniques. In most region, quartzites continued to be used, and in such cases, Lower Palaeolithic elements continued into the Middle Palaeolithic. However, fine-grained siliceous rocks such as chert and jasper, were now preferred for tool-making, and raw material was often transported over several kilometers. Middle Palaeolithic hominids largely continued to occupy areas inhabited during the Lower Palaeolithic. But, in some parts of India such as Tamil Nadu, rock shelters began to be occupied for the first time. The artefacts of Middle Palaeolithic age are found at several places on the river Narmada, and also at several sites, south of the Tungabhadra river. The Belan valley (UP), which lies at the foothills of the Vindhyas, is rich in stone tools and animal fossils including cattle and deer. These remains relate to both the Lower and Middle stone age.

            The Wagaon and Kadamali rivers in Mewar are rich in Middle Palaeolithic sites. A variety of scrapers, borers and points have been discovered in this area. Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been reported from Chirki near Nevasa and Bhandarpur near Orsand Valley. At Bhimbetka, the tools representing the Acheulian tradition were replaced at a later stage by the Middle Palaeolithic culture. By and large open-air sites along streams on hill slopes, stable dune surfaces and rock-shelters continued to be used as is evident from the finds from Sanghao cave in Modern Pakistan, Luni river basin in Rajasthan, the sand dunes of Didwana, the Chambal, Narmada, Son and Kortallayar river valleys, the plateaus of Eastern Indian and the Hunsgi valley in the south. Dates for this period range from around 1,50,000 to 30,000 before present (BP), a period characterized in general by aridity.

            Perhaps the most remarkable group of Middle Palaeolithic sites in the subcontinent are those in the Rohri hills of upper Sind. The industry is based upon the large nodules of chert that cap this group of the flat topped limestone hills. These vast expanses of chert were extensively exploited in Middle and Upper Palaeolithic times and again in Chalcolithic period; but they appear to have been largely neglected during the Lower Palaeolithic and again during the Mesolithic, probably for climatic reasons. Extensive spreads of quartzite boulders, cobbles and pebbles in the Potwar region in the northern Punjab were used by Middle and Upper Palaeolithic tool makers.

            Upper Palaeolithic: Towards the end of the Pleistocene, around 30,000 years ago, there was a distinct change in tool types and technology, which could be related to either changes in hunting methods, or to a more general shift in the utilization of resources, or a response to environmental change. The technique of making parallel-sided blades from a carefully prepared core, is an essential basic element of all Upper Palaeolithic industries of the subcontinent, which were contemporary with the final arid phase. Artefact types include a wide range of scrapers, backed blades, points, choppers and burins, and regional variability in blade technology and assemblage structure may now be clearly identified. For the first time, bone tools appear in limestone caves of Kurnool.

            Although aridity restricted settlement in the interior dunes of Rajasthan, elsewhere Upper Palaeolithic sites are abundant. Tools were made on a wide range of raw materials and were for the most part on long thin blades. Evidence for long distance transport of fine grained chert and chalcedony is widespread, testifying to the vast distances traversed by, or interaction between Upper Palaeolithic communities. The Upper Palaeolithic industries are generally, characterized by parallel sided blades and burins and other lighter artefacts.

            The presence of  Upper Palaeolithic artiefacts has been reported in the Thar regions (though they are more sparsely distributed then those of the Middle Palaeolithic), at Sanghao caves in the North West Frontiers Province and in the Potwar plateau of the northern Punjab (both in Pakistan), from parts of South India, central Gujarat and north-western Kathiawar. An Upper Palaeolithic blade and burin industry from a group of sites near Renigunta in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh was also found.

            The faunal remains of the Palaeolithic period suggest that the people were primarily in a hunting and gathering stage. The Palaeolithic people subsisted on animals such as ox, bison, nilgai, chinkara, gazelle, black buck antelope, sambar, spotted deer, wild bear, a variety of birds, and tortoises and fishes and on honey and plant food like fruits, roots, seeds and leaves. Hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit in the Rock paintings and carvings found at Bhimbetka. The earliest paintings at Bhimbetka belong to Upper Palaeolithic when people lived in small groups.

Mesolithic: The Mesolithic and other stone industries of the Holocene (c.9000 B.C.) in the subcontinent represent a further contribution of the developmental process of the Palaeolithic. Changes in climate (which became warm and rainy) resulted in changes in flora and fanna. The hunter-gatherer communities spread rapidly over India. Microlithic industries associated with what appear to be the cultures of hunting people, fishermen, pastoralists or people practicing some form of agriculture, have been found widely throughout the subcontinent.

            Microlithic or small stone tools (their length ranging from 1 to 8 cm) comprised of tools made on blades and bladelets and include burins, lunettes, crescents, triangles, points, trapeze etc. which were subsequently hafted onto bone or wooden handles to form composite tools. Mesolithic sites abound in Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara, etc.), Uttar Pradesh  (Sarai Nahar Rai, Morhana Pahar, Lekhahia etc.) Central India (Bimbetka, Adamgarh etc.) eastern India (Kuchai in Orissa, Birbhanpur in west Bengal, Sebalgiri-2 in Garo hills of Meghalaya etc.) and slo south of the river Krishna (Sangankallu, Renigunta etc.) There is a rich concentration of microlithic sites in the Narmada, Mahi and Sabarmati valley of Gujarat. The primary excavated site is Langhanaj which has revealed three cultural phases, the phase I  producing microlithic, burials and animal bones. Pottery appears in later phases at the sites of Lekhahia and Baghai Khor. Faunal remains of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, boar, bison, elephant, deer, jackal, wolf and a number of aquatic animals have been found. Since the Mesolithic age marked a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic age and the Neolithic age, the first tentative steps towards domestication occurred. At Bagor (Rajasthan), bones of domesticated sheep and goat, are dated to around the 5^thCentury B.C.

            We can have an idea about the social life and economic activities of the Mesolithic people from the art and paintings found at sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur. Mesolithic rock paintings depict people hunting game, gathering plant resources, trapping animals, eating together, dancing and playing instruments. Animals are the most frequent subjects. Other subjects include animal headed human figures; squares and oblongs partly filled in with hatched designs which may represent huts or enclosures and what appears to be pictures of unusual events, such as the chariots waylaid by men armed with spears and bows and arrows at Morhana Pahar group of rock shelters near Mirzapur. The colours and brown painted net traps for fishing, and for hunting small game, highlight the richness of material culture of which no trace survives in the archaeological record.

            The Mesolithic culture paved the way for the Neolithic, where pastoralism and agriculture supplemented hunting-gathering as the prevalent mode of subsistence. In the Indian context, there emerges a broad overlap in the chronology of the so-called Mesolithic cultures and the earliest agricultural settlements now coming to light in the Indus basin. But, by and large the Mesolithic culture continued to be important roughly from 9000 to 4000 B.C.