MAGADHAN ASCENDANCY

MAGADHAN ASCENDANCY

Magadhan ascendancy began with Bimbisara (544-492 Be) of the Haryanka dynasty. He was a resolute and energetic organiser, ruthlessly dismissing inefficient officers, calling his village headmen together for conferences, building roads and causeways, and travelling around his kingdom on tours of inspection. He cultivated friendly relations with the prominent kings of his time. He himself married the princesses of Kosala, Vaishali and Madra which helped him in his expansionist policy. His one and only conquest was that of Anga, the capital city of which (Champa) was already of considerable commercial importance. He also gained a part of Kasi as the dowry in his marriage with the sister of Prasenajit of Kosala. The Magadhan capital was at this stage at Rajagriha.

Bimbisara was deposed, imprisoned and murdered by his own son, Ajatasatru (492-460 Be) who was engaged in a prolonged conflict with Prasenajit. He defeated Prasenajit, married his daughter, and annexed Kasi. Just after this Prasenajit, like Bimbisara, was deposed by his son and he died at the gate of Rajagriha. The new king, Virudhak, then attacked and virtually annihilated the little autonomous tribe of the Sakyas to which Buddha belonged.

Probably, Virudhak, like Ajatasatru, had ambitions of empire and wished to embark on a career of conquest after bringing the outlying peoples, who had paid loose homage to his father, more directly under the control of the centre; but his intentions were unfulfilled for we hear no more of him except for an unreliable legend that he was destroyed by a miracle soon after his massacre of the Sakyas. A little later his kingdom was incorporated in Magadha.

Although his mother (Chellana) was a Lichchhavi princess, Ajatasatru did not hesitate from waging wars against the Lichchhavis. His prime minister, Vrihadarayan, sowed dissensions in their ranks and Ajatasatru finally destroyed their independence, though it took about 16 years. He succeeded in the battle because of a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapults, and a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings.Probably, the rise of Magadha aroused the jealousy of Avanti and the relations between the two were strained.

Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 Be) who founded the new capital at Pataliputra. Situated at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son, it was commercially and strategically important. The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Sisunaga dynasty, which destroyed the power of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain and incorporated it in the Magadhan empire. The Sisunagas also temporarily shifted the capital to Vaisali.

The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas who annexed Kalinga to the empire. Mahapadma Nanda was the most important king of this dynasty. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. The Nanda army was very strong-said to com­prise 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and 6,000 war el­ephants. This is said to have checked Alexander's army from advancing towards Magadha. The last Nandas turned out to be weaklings. Their rule in Magadha was supplanted by that of the Maurya dynasty-Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda.

The ascendancy of Magadha was facilitated by enter­prising and ambitious monarchs like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and Mahapadma Nanda; the rich iron deposits in its land: the strategically situated capitals; fertile alluvium; devel­oped trade and commerce; use of elephants in wars; and unorthodox character of the Magadhan society.

The Sungas and the Kanvas of Magadha

The Sungas and the Kanvas of Magadha | Indian History

In this article we will discuss about the role of sungas and kanvas of magadha in Indian history.

The Sungas (187-75 B.C.):

I. Pushyamitra (187-151 B.C.):

The Buddhist text, Divvavadana described that the Sungas belonged to the Maurya-family. But historians do not accept this view. The majority of them described that Pushyamitra, the founder of the Sunga dynasty in Magadha was a Brahamana. However, they have differed concerning their Kula. In his text, Malvikagnimitra, Kalidas described that the Sungas belonged to Bembic-family of the Brahamanas.

The Bembic Brahamanas have been regarded belonging to Kasyapa-gotra. But the majority of the scholars do not accept this view. They have opined that the Sungas belonged to Bharadwaj- gotra of the Brahamanas.

Pushyamita was the commander-in-chief of the army of the last Maurya ruler Brihadratha. By that time, the Mauryas had lost not only their power but prestige also and their empire was reduced because of the successful revolt of the Satavahanas (Andhras) in the South and intrusion of the Greeks in their North-West territories.

Brihadratha was also an incapable ruler and lost influence over his army. Pushyamitra once assembled the army and requested the king to inspect it. At the time of inspection, Pushyamitra assassinated Brihadratha before the army and usurped the throne of Magadha.

Pushyamitra tried to consolidate the remaining territories of the Magadha empire and he succeeded. The South, being already lost, his territories extended only up to the river Narmada in the South while in the North-West he could check the intrusion of the Greeks at the banks of river Indus.

Pushyamitra succeeded in defeating Yajnasena, the king of Vidarbha (Berar). Yajnasena had declared himself independent of Magadha. He was attacked by Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra who was the governor of Vidisa at that time. Yajnasena was defeated and, eventually, Vidarbha was divided between the two cousins, Yajnasena and Madhavasena, under Pushyamitra as their suzerain.

But the primary achievement of Pushyamitra was to check the penetration of the Greeks in India. The Greeks had already occupied the North-West in India and had succeeded in attacking upto Ayodhya during the period of Brihadratha.

Pushyamitra had succeeded in defeating them even at that time and their further intrusion in India was checked. Probably, this had been the basic reason of his popularity among the soldiers of Magadha which helped him in usurping the throne itself.

When he became the king, he pursued the task of fighting against these foreigners. The one big invasion of the Greeks was led by king Demetrius but it was successfully repulsed by Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra. Pushyamitra performed two Aswamedha (horse-sacrifice) vajnas and probably both of them were performed after his success against the Greeks. During his time the Greeks could not proceed into India beyond the river Indus.

Dr V. A. Smith and Dr Jayaswal have described that Pushyamitra fought a war against king Kharvela of Kalinga and was defeated. Dr Satyaketu Vidyalankar has also agreed with this view. But Dr H.C. Ray Chaudhry and Dr R.S. Tripathi have proved that Kharvela was not a contemporary of Pushyamitra and so there was no question of any war between them. The majority of historians accept their view.

Pushyamitra supported Brahamanical religion and revived its traditions. The Buddhist texts the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa and the Divyavadana describe that he destroyed Buddhist monasteries, killed the monks and during his course of march to Sakala (Sialkot in Punjab) declared a prize of one hundred gold coins on the head of each monk. But, there is no independent evidence to prove this charge. Of course, the Sungas were strong supporters of Brahamanical religion but they were not intolerant of Buddhism.

The great Buddhist stupa at Bharhut was erected during the reign of the Sungas. If Pushyamitra and his descendants had been the destroyers of Buddhist monasteries then it could not be possible. E.B. Havell has opined that even if we accept the version of Buddhist-texts that Pushyamitra destroyed Buddhist monasteries, he did so not for destroying Buddhism but for breaking their political power as these had become its centres.

Pushyamitra has been branded as a traitor to his master by some historians but deposition of a weak ruler by a stronger contestant was a rule at that time. Pushyamitra was not an exception. The weak Maurya rulers had lost their right to rule because of their incompetency. The Maurya empire was disintegrating because of its own weaknesses and had become an easy prey to foreign invasions by the Greeks.

Pushyamitra succeeded in repulsing the foreign invasions and also in checking further disintegration of the empire. Therefore, his actions justified his usurpation of the throne. The success of Pushyamitra against the Greek invasions is enough to justify not only his claim over the throne but also his right to rule.

II. The Successors of Pushyamitra:

According to the Puranas there were nine other rulers of the Sunga dynasty. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. Besides, Sujyestha, Vasumitra, Bhagvata were other rulers of this dynasty. Its last ruler Devabhumi or Devabhuti was killed by his minister Vasudeva who laid the foundations of the rule of the Kanva dynasty in Magadha.

III. The Importance of the Sunga Dynasty:

The rule of the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, for more than a century, was important in many aspects. It checked the further disintegration of the Magadha empire and atleast kept its central part intact. It also checked the further intrusion of the Greeks in the mainland of India. Besides, the process of revival of Brahamanical religion and the Sanskrit language started with the rule of the Sungas.

The great grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra. The Manu-Smiriti the Vishnu-Smiriti and the Yagvavalka-Smiriti were compiled during this age. The Mahabharat was also written at this time. Dr K.M. Panikkar has expressed the view that the great Sanskrit scholar.

Kalidas, was a contemporary of Agnimitra though it has not been accepted by other scholars. The period also witnessed the growing influence of the Bhagvata religion and drew converts even from among foreigners particularly the Greeks.

The arts, particularly architecture, also progressed during this period. The stupa of Bharhut, some additions to Buddha-Gaya-Stupa and the gates and boundary wall of the stupa at Sanchi were built during this age, which have been regarded as fine specimens of architecture.

It is also believed that a new school of architecture grew up at Vidisa which remained the capital of later Sunga rulers. Thus, the rule of the Sungas positively contributed to the betterment of the then Indian polity and culture.

The Kanva Dynasty (75-30 B.C.):

The last ruler of the Sungas, Devabhumi was killed by a slave-girl at the instruction of his minister Vasudeva who established the rule of the Kanva dynasty in Magadha. The rulers of this dynasty, namely, Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Naravana and Susarman ruled for 9. 14. 12 and 10 years respectively.

Very little is known about the history of the Kanvas and their successors. However, it is accepted that the Andhras from the South conquered Magadha and destroyed the rule of the Kanvas and when they left Magadha, it was divided into several small kingdoms which existed till the establishment of the Gupta empire.

Political History of Magadha Empire in India

The emergence of Magadha, one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, as a dominant kingdom between the 6th century BC and the 4th century BC heralded the beginning of a new era in the evolution of society, economy, polity and culture of the subcontinent of India.

As history is a process and transition, we notice a transition: from pre-state society to state system, rural to urban, sacrificial ritual to individual meditation, from oral tradition to script and writing to record permanently, contributions in the realms of philosophy, science and literature, and minting of coinage with standard weight in metal, backed by legal and political sanction as exchange value of commodities which led to the growth of trade and commerce.

These multiple factors are the cause and the effect of changes that shaped the material and intellectual milieu of Indian society.

Of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, only Magadha could play a seminal role at that time because of certain advantages: Geographically, Magadha had in its vicinity large tracts of alluvial soil suitable for producing agricultural surplus. The earliest capital Rajagriha was located in a strategic position in a compara­tively isolated region, close to the availability of iron ore.

The later capital of Magadha was located at Pataliputra, which was situated at the confluence of several rivers like Ganga, Gandak and Son, which makes it a waterfort or Jaladurga. This enabled the Magadha rulers to command effectively the Uttarapatha that is to the north of the river Ganga along the foothills of the Himalayas. The river Ganga helped them to stay connected with other regions and to develop transport on the river.

These natural advantages made Magadha a dominant power. Further, recent studies have brought to light Magadha’s access to iron ore, which enabled it to manufacture weapons for offensive and defensive use as well as implements necessary for agricultural operations. The alluvial soils of the Gangetic plain and adequate rainfall were very conducive for the expansion of agriculture.

This enabled Magadha to generate sustainable surplus to meet the growing needs of the state system in the form of taxes. Growth of towns and the use of metal currency encouraged large-scale trade and commerce. The taxes collected by the state machinery enabled the Magadhan rulers maintain a strong army. Their use of elephants gave them an added advantage over their enemies.

Further, the racial admixture created an unorthodox social base that fostered solidarity among the inhabitants. All these factors encouraged Magadha to launch expeditions for territorial expansion. Magadha became a dominant kingdom under the Saisunagas and the Nanda political power structure became, what Romila Thapar calls “a Metropolitan state” under Mauryan rule.

A critical study of the available primary literary sources of the Buddhists – Tripitakas and the Jatakas, Divya Vadana, Mahavamsa, Dipa Vamsa and the Jaina texts Acaranga Sutra and Sutra Kritama. Classical writings in Greek and Latin, Megasthene’s Indica that came to us through the quotations of Strabo, Deodorus and Arrian, Herodatus’s account, Kzutilya’s Arthasastra, numismatic, and epigraphic evidences, and excavations help us in reconstructing the process of transition that took place during the pre-Mauryan and the Mauryan age.

Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and Udayin laid the foundation for the Magadhan supremacy. The Saisunagas and the Nandas continued the policy of acquiring new territories. It was during the rule of the Nandas that the Macedonian ruler Alexander invaded North-Western India in 326 BC. Alexander’s invasion of India did not lead to any permanent political set-up but it initiated cultural contacts between India and Greece. Evidences show that the Nandas developed contacts with the South and the Deccan, and the Nanda political power structure ended by BC 321.

Traditional accounts record that Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the oppressive rule of the Nandas in alliance with Kautilya or Chanakya. In spite of the dynastic fluctuations, Magadha continued to be a centre of political power by its location and natural advantages well into the medieval period.

The founding of the Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta Maurya ushered a new era in the history of India. Not much reliable authentic data about the antecedents of Chandragupta is available. Mudrarakshasa, a play of the 6th century AD, records that he rose to political power with the help, blessings and cooperation of Kautilya the celebrated author of Arthasastra. The early years of Chandragupta’s reign appear to be obscure.

The Maurya was considered to be ‘a low caste’ or of ‘tribal origin’ by most of the historians. Classical sources also describe them as of low caste. The Puranas also describe them as Sudras but Buddhist literature mentions that Chandragupta was a member of the Moriya clan of Pippalivana, who are distantly related to the tribe of the Sakyas who are Kshatriyas. There is also a view that the Mauryas were Vaisyas as Chandra had ‘Gupta’ at the end of his name and Asoka married the daughter of a merchant of Vidisa.

It may be concluded that the caste affiliations of the Mauryas remain obscure. The rise of Chandragupta Maurya to the throne proves beyond doubt that in spite of the dictates of the Varnasrama model the society and Dharma of the times accepted anyone who showed potential as a ruler. It may also be explained that the impact of heterodox sects on Magadha was so powerful that they could ignore the Varnasrama model. Whatever may be the reason, the accession and acceptance of Chandragupta, as a ruler appears to be revolu­tionary, though it is an isolated instance and not a general rule?

All the available sources record that Chandragupta overthrew the last of the Nanda kings and ascended the Magadha throne in or around 321 BC. Yet, there is no definite evidence regarding the year in which Chandragupta routed the Greeks and defeated the Nandas. Now, there is a general agreement that these two events must have taken place by 321 BC.

Another important victory attributed to Chandragupta was the victory over Seleucus by 303 BC. This victory signifies that the territorial foundations of the Mauryas were well estab­lished within the Gangetic plains. Based on the later evidences, there is also a view that he conquered western India and Deccan too.

The Jaina tradition proudly claims that he became a votary of Jainism and abdicated the throne and went south with a Jaina saint Bhadrabahu. Chandragupta spent the rest of his life at Sravana Belagola in Karnataka and ended his life performing Sallekhana, a Jaina way of attaining Nirvana. His son Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta. He is said to have ascended the Mauryan throne in 297 BC. Neither Indian nor classical sources furnish any useful historical information about him. Classical sources call him Amitraghata. He had contacts with the Selucid king of Syria, Antiochous I.

The Buddhist work of Taranatha, a very late source of the 16th century AD, recounts his war-like activities. Some scholars consider the thundering of the Mauryan chariots over the length and breadth of the territory depicted by early Tamil poets as reference to Bindusara’s conquests. There is also a view that it was Bindusara, who firmly established Mauryan rule in the Deccan and the Mysore plateau as Asoka is said to have conquered Kalinga and then given up conquests.

Though Binduasara had the title of Amitraghata, we are not sure of the foes killed by him and why he killed them. Bindusara appears to have been a follower of the Ajivika sect. The Buddhist texts are certain that he died around 273-272 BC, as there is a gap of three or four years before the crowning of Asoka; it is surmised that a succession war might have taken place among the sons of Bindusara aspiring for the throne.

Asoka’s reign of more than three decades is the first fairly well documented period of the early history of India. Asoka left behind a series of major and minor rock edicts along with pillar edicts which enable us to know fairly well about his reign and deeds. Except the epigraphs at Maski and Sannati, none of the edicts refers to his name as Asoka.

Epigraphs describe him as Devanampiya or beloved of the gods and Piyadaso. Till 1837, when James Princep desciphered these epigraphs and identified Devanampiya with Asoka Maurya with the corroborative evidence of other sources, Asoka was not a well-known historical figure of the early history of India. A stupa was discovered at Kanaganahalli, a tiny hamlet on the left bank of the river Bhima, 3 kms south of Sannati.

The importance of this discovery is that an anthropomorphic representation of Emperor Asoka with his queen, with a legal in Brahmi reading ‘Raya Asokasa’ making a donation. It is quite interesting to come across an anthropomorphic representation at a far-off place from his core area and that too in a peripheral area. It makes one question: What could be the reason for this representation at Kanaganahalli with his queen? Perhaps, it could be to impress the people of this area about his attention for them that he and his queen made a donation.

If that could be so, what could be the special reason? We have not yet found such a representation anywhere else. Perhaps, one of the beneficiaries of Asoka’s deeds of charity out of gratitude or admiration might have been responsible for the anthropomorphic representation of Asoka at Kanaganahalli.

Asoka attained eternal fame as ‘Asoka the great’ in the history of mankind because he happened to be the first ruler to give up ‘Digvijaya’ concept and start ‘Dharma Vijaya’ and to usher in a rule based on of Dharma. Because of this unique policy, the independent Republic of India selected Asoka’s lion pillar as the emblem of the state.Asoka started his political apprenticeship as the Governor of Taxila during his father’s reign. He is credited to have successfully curbed the rebellions in the state. For some time, he also was the Governor of Ujjain.

The exact date and the precise circumstances in which he succeeded his father cannot be authentically proved. Nevertheless, the Buddhist sources are sure that Asoka ruthlessly eliminated his many brothers and declared himself the ruler in 269-270 BC. We may agree with Eggermont that this story was invented by the Buddhists to prove their point that prior to his transformation as ‘Pious Asoka’ he was wicked-minded and power-hungry. However, we may not subscribe to the Buddhist viewpoint, Asoka not being a Yuvaraja or heir apparent is certain and the war of succession appears to be a fact. Only Asoka’s success in the war of succession made him the Mauryan ruler.

We have evidence to believe that Asoka’s predecessors Chandragupta Maurya and Binduasara had intruded into the South and the Deccan and perhaps conquered parts of Kalinga, but still it had to be brought under their effective control. Asoka’s first priority was the conquest of Kalinga as it controlled routes to South India both by land and by sea and as such, it was strategically important to have a firm sway over it. Around 260 BC, Asoka directed armies against Kalinga. The 13th Rock edict, Asoka vividly describes the conquest of Kalinga. Curiously, this epigraph is silent about the name of the defeated ruler but refers to the territorial entity of Kalinga.

The edicts are categorical that a hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and many times that number perished. The edict further records remorse expressed by Asoka over this loss of human lives and his urge for spiritual conquest or Dharma Vijaya. Based on this statement it was believed that he became a devout Buddhist immediately after the war.

However, this is unlikely, as the Bhabru epigraph clearly states that it was only after two and a half years’ gap after the war, that he became a staunch supporter of Buddhism under the influence of Upagupta, Buddhist monk. Asoka undertook a 256-day long Dharmayatra or holy pilgrimage to all the Buddhist holy places in northern India. Eggermont opines that after returning, Asoka celebrated a great festival of the Buddhist Sangha and began his extensive mission of propagating Buddhist doctrines, and convened the third Buddhist council at Pataliputra in 250 BC. However, curiously, none of his epigraphs refers to this event, or to the ‘Enlightened One’. Perhaps, Asoka realized that in the larger interests of his empire, he should observe a clear-cut distinction between his personal faith and the polity, and should be unbiassed as the emperor as his subjects professed different religious faiths and beliefs.

Asoka does not appear to be a simple visionary or an idealist but quite practical and pragmatic in his approach. In order to propagate what he believed to be good for his populace and to translate those thoughts into action, in 257 BC, he ordered for large edicts to be cut in the frontier regions of his empire. The idea behind this order was that his message should reach the masses. The script employed by him was Brahmi and the language followed was the regional variations of Prakrit, known to all the common men. His target audiences were not the highly qualified literate groups but ordinary common folk. This displays his genuine concern for the moral well-being of the people. So far, eight versions of these edicts have been noticed.

In all these edicts Asoka ordered all the citizens of his empire to put into practice non-violence, by not killing animals for food. He also prohibited illicit and immoral activities of people. He stressed the need for right conduct on their part and deputed messengers to spread this principle among his citizens.

He himself put into practice this principle by being amicable with his neighbouring regions of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputras and Sri Lanka in the South and with King Antiyoka of Syria and his neighbours in the West. In addition to these measures, he instructed his officers to tour regularly to see that the people followed the rules of right conduct. This shows that Asoka was not simply a preacher but he also thought about the measures to implement his preaching.

Asoka must have understood and realized that to bring about the required attitudinal change in the perception is not an easy task and needs constant observation and super­vision by himself as well as by his officers. There is every reason to believe that right from the beginning; Asoka seems to have faced resistance to his ideas and orders. This can be inferred from the indirect evidence available to us from the inscription issued in the 13th year after his coronation.

The epigraph reads as follows: “Virtuous deeds are difficult to accomplish. He who tries to accomplish them faces a hard task”. Asoka appointed Dharmamahamatras in that year, to teach the principles of right conduct and to supervise the people. These new officers were ordered to travel widely and to report to him directly the outcome of their efforts. In the same year, he despatched Dutas or ambassadors to the distant countries in the west to propagate his Dhamma or philosophy as is known from the 13th rock edict.

The epigraph records “where reigns the Greek King named Antiyoka and beyond the realm of that Antiyoga in the lands of the four Kings Tulamaya, Antekina, Maka, and Alikyashudata”. These rulers are identified as Antiochus II Theos of Syria, the grandson of Seleucus Nicator; Ptolemy II of Philadelphus of Egypt; Antigonus Gonatices of Macedonia; Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus. Asoka, thus once again started contacts and communications deliberately to promote understanding based on mutual respect with the kingdoms beyond the subcontinent. Curiously, while the east was comparatively less explored, contacts with the west were carried on and we notice exchange of envoys. This resulted in the growth of mutual contacts and interests between the Hellenistic kingdoms and India.

The location of various rock edicts, and pillar edicts through which Asoka propagated his philosophy of Dhamma gives us a fair idea of the extent of the Magadhan territory under Asoka. There are 14 major rock edicts, seven pillar edicts and some minor rock epigraphs. The major rock edicts are located at Shabazgarhi and Manshera near Peshawar, Kalsi near Dehradun, Sopara in Thana district, Girnar near Junagarh in Kathiawar, Dhauli near Bhubaneswar and Jaugada in Ganjam district of Orissa. The minor rock edicts appear at Siddhapura, Jatinga Rameswara and Brahmagiri in Karnataka. Other, minor, rock edicts are also found at Rupanath near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh, Sahasram in Bihar, Bairat near Jaipur in Rajasthan and Maski in Karnataka.

The pillar inscriptions of Asoka are found originally at Topra near Ambala Meerut, which are now located at Delhi, Kausambi in Uttar Pradesh, Lau Araraj, Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva in Bihar, Sanchi near Bho Saranth near Benaras, and Rumindei in Nepal. The edicts were placed deliberately after careful consideration on important trade routes linking trade and road traffic. Recent studies of the Mauryan period establish that the motivation penetration of their rule appears to be a desire to have direct access to n materials particularly of the Peninsula.

The Magadhan Empire reached the greatest heights of territorial expansion under Asoka. Asoka’s reign witnessed the expansion of empire and at the same time cessation of war as a means to expand the empire. Asoka’s policy of non-violence as a state policy was never tried either prior to Asoka or by later rulers anywhere in India at any given time. Asoka made conscious efforts to unite under one umbrella the divergent populace, as one united entity’, in the longer and larger interests of the security and stability of the Mauryan kingdom. As long as he lived and ruled, the empire remained intact but 50 years after his death, the Mauryan kingdom went into oblivion.

The rule of the first three Mauryas, viz., Chandragupta, Bindusara and Asoka, i.e., the first ninety years of the dynasty, was very impressive. The Mauryan rule is notable for drawing together the largely diverse elements of India under one umbrella. The Mauryans were the first to give expression to a vision of a politically unified India that influenced all political power structures in subse­quent centuries. Only a few rulers could succeed in achieving the Mauryan ideal.

The available literary texts do not provide us definite information about the successors of Asoka. A sort of confusion can be noticed about what happened after Asoka. We come across various names like Kunala, Dasaratha, Samprati, Salisuka, Devavarman, Satadhanvan and Brihadradha and all of them are identified as the sons of Asoka. At this juncture with the available sources it very difficult to determine the precise dates or period of their rule.

Most probably, the fragmentation of the empire into two parts, western and eastern, while frequent succession of rulers has hastened the process of disintegration of this first empire. It is suggested that Kunala ruled the western part and Samprati, who had to face the opposition of the Bactrian Greeks in the northwest, and Satavahanas in the northern Deccan.

The eastern part of the empire was ruled by Dasaratha, Samprati, Salisuka, Devavarman, Satadhanvan and Brihadratha successively. His commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga, the founder of Sunga rule, killed the last of the Mauryas, Brihadratha.Many causes are offered as an explanation for the disintegration of Mauryan rule.

They are:

(a) Weak successors and division of empire,

(b) Failure to have a firm grip over administrative apparatus,

(c) Corrupt and oppressive bureaucracy,

(d) Failure of the spy system,

(e) Asoka’s policy of Dhamma and non-violence,

(f) Financial constraint, and

(g) The rise of local polities in the north and south.

We may conclude that directly or indirectly all the above causes contributed to the disintegration of the Mauryan polity. The Mauryans are credited with the establishment of the first centralized monarchical state apparatus supported by an established and efficient bureaucratic set-up. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Megasthenes’ India and the Asokan edicts furnish an idea of the Mauryan administrative system.

Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire

Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire

In the sixth country B.C. North India was divided into sixteen kingdoms out of which Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states.

These four states involved themselves in internecine quarrel in which Magadha emerged as the most powerful state and acquired mastery in the political domain of India.

Magadha under Bimbisara:

Magadha rose into prominence under the rule of Bimbisara who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. Most probably he overthrew the Brihadrathas from Magadha and assumed the title “Srinika” after his accession. He ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. His greatest achievement was the establishment of Magadhan empire. He followed fourfold policy in order to fulfill his programme of imperial expansion.

Policy of Matrimonial Alliance:

By adopting the policy of matrimonial alliance, Bimbisara tried to augment his power. He married Kosaladevi, daughter of king Mahakosala of Kosala, received the Kasi village as dowry, which yielded revenue of 1, 00,000. “Mahavamsa” mentions his marriage with Chellana the daughter of Chetak, the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali.

He then married Vasavi, a princess of Videha in the northward. He also got the hand of Khema, the daughter of king of Modra in Central Punjab. The establishment of matrimonial relations with these states added glory to the Magadhna empire and it also paved the way for the expansion of Magadhan empire and westward.

Policy of Conquest:

The next policy of Bimbisara for the expansion of Magadhan empire was the policy of conquest. Bimbisara led a campaign against the kingdom of Anga and defeated its king Brahmadatta. Anga along with its capital city Champa, was annexed to the Magadhan empire.

Friendly Relation with distant Neighbours:

As a farsighted diplomat, Bimbisara had followed the policy of friendship towards the distant neighbours to win their co-operation for the safety and security of his empire. He received an embassy and letter from Pukkusati, the ruler of Gandhar with which Pradyota had fought unsuccessfully. Magadha’s most formidable enemy was Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti who fought with Bimbisara but ultimately the two thought it wise to become friends. He also sent his physician Jivak to Ujjain when Pradyota was attacked by jaundice.

Consolidation of his Empire by a Good Administrative System:

By introducing a highly efficient system of administration, Bimbisara consolidated his conquests. His administration was found to have been really well-organised and efficient. The high officers were divided into three classes, viz. executive, military and judicial. The ‘Sabarthakas’ were responsible for the management of general administration.

“Senanayaka Mahamatras” were in charge of military affairs. “Vyavaharika Mahamatra’s” were in charge of judicial-administration. Provincial administration was also well-organised. The head of provincial administration was “Uparaja”. The villages enjoyed rural autonomy. “Gramika” was the head of the village administration. The penal laws were severe. Bimbisara also developed the means of communication by constructing good roads. He is said to have established a new capital at Rajagriha situated on the outskirts of the old capital Girivraja.

He made Magadha a paramount power in the sixth century B.C. It is said that his kingdom had consisted of 80,000 villages. He was also a devotee of Buddha. He donated a garden named “Belubana” to the Buddhist Sangha. According to the Buddhist chronicle Bimbisara ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. He was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru who had killed him and seized the throne for himself.

Ajatasatru (492—460 B.C.):

The reign of Ajatasatru witnessed the high watermark of Bimbisara dynasty. From the very beginning Ajatasatru pursued the policy of expansion and conquest. He began a prolonged war with Prasenjit of Kosala who had revoked the gift of the Kasi village made to Bimbisara. The war continued for some time with varying success to both sides till Prasenjit ended it by giving his daughter, Vajira Kumari in marriage to Ajatasatru and leaving him in possession of Kasi.

The next achievement of Ajatasatru was the conquest of Lichchavis of Vaisali. Chetak, chief of Lichchavis had formed a strong confederacy comprising 36 republics in order to fight Magadha. According to jaina sources, before his death, Bimbisara gave his elephant “Seyanaga” “Sechanaka” and two large bejewelled necklaces, one each to his sons Halla and Vehalla who were born of their Lichahhavi mother, Chellana.

Chetak had given them political assylum. After his accession, Ajatasatru requested chetak to surrender them. But Chetak refused to extradite Chetaka’s step brothers. So the conflict between Ajatasatru and Lichchhavis became inevitable.

According to Buddhist text Ajatasatru had entered into an agreement with Lichchhavis to divide among them the gems extracted from a mine at the foot of the hill near the river Ganges. But the Lichchhavis deprived Ajatasatru of his share. But Dr. H.C. Raychoudhury points out that the most potent cause of war was the common movement among the republican states against the rising imperialism of Magadha.

Ajatasatru made elaborate war preparations against the Lichchhavis. As a base for operation he constructed a fort at Patalagrama on the confluence of Ganga and the Son which eventually developed into the famous capital of Pataliputra. Ajatasatru also tried to create a division among members of Lichchhavi confederacy. He employed his minister Vassakara who successfully sowed the seeds of dissension among the members of Vajjian confederacy and broke their solidarity.

Thereafter Ajatasatru invaded their territory and it took him full sixteen years to destroy Lichchhavis. In this war he used some new weapons and devices like “mahasilakantaka” and “rathamushala” to overpower the enemy. Ultimately Lichchhavi was annexed to the Magadhan territory.

Ajatasatru faced danger from Avanti while he was engaged in war with Lichchhavis. King Chanda Pradyota of Avanti became jealous of his power and threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger Ajatasatru started fortification of Rajgiri. But the invasion did not materialize in his life time.

The successors of Ajatasatru:

Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin who ruled for sixteen years. The Buddhist texts describe him as a parricide where as the jaina literature mentions him as a devoted son to his father. Udayin built the city of Pataliputra at the fort of Patalagrama which commanded the strategically and commercial highway of eastern India. During his rule Avanti became jealous of the ascendancy of Magadha and a contest between the two started for mastery of Northern India.

However, Udayin was not destined to live to see the ultimate victory of Magadha against Avanti. According to the jaina texts he constructed a chaitya in Pataliputra. He also observed fasts on the eighth and fourteenth tithis as per the jaina tradition. It is said that Udayin have been murdered by assassin engaged by Palaka, the king of Avanti. According to Ceylonese chronicle Udayin was succeeded by three kings namely Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.

The Ceylonese chronicle describes that all the three kings were parasite. The people resented their rule and revolted against the last king Nagadasaka and raised an amatya Sisunaga on the throne of Magadha. With this restoration the rule of Haryanka dynasty came to end and the rule of Sisunaga dynasty came into being.

Sisunaga served as the viceroy of Kasi before he ascended the throne of Magadha. He established his capital at Girivaraja. His greatest achievement was the conquest and annexation of Avanti. This brought to an end the hundred year’s rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. Probably he had annexed Vatsa and Kosala Kingdoms to Magadha. Towards the later part of his regain he temporarily shifted his capital to Vaisali.

Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Kakavarna. The reign of Kalasoka is important for two events, viz., the transfer of Magadha capital from Girivaraja to Pataliputra and holding of the second Buddhist Congress at Vaisali. Very unfortunately, he lost his life in a palace revolution, which brought the Nandas upon the throne of Magadha. The usurper was probably Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of Nanda dynasty and he also killed the ten sons of Kalasoka who ruled jointly. Thus the Sisunaga dynasty was followed by the new dynasty of the Nandas.

The Nanda Dynasty:

Mahapadma Nanda:

The rule of Nandas marked the beginning of a new epoch in the history of Ancient India. Under the Nandas the provincial kingdom of Magadha was transformed into an empire. According to R.K. Mookheijee, Mahapadmananda was the “first historical emperor of India.” Mahapadmananda usurped the throne after murdering Kalasoka, the last notable ruler of the Sisunaga line. However, the ancestry of Mahapadmananda is a controversial question. There are two fold versions of his origin. According to the Puranas, he was the son of the last king of Sisunaga line by a sudra woman.

The jaina work Parisishtaparvana describes him as the son of a courtesan by a barber. Mahapadma Nanda ruled over Magadha for twenty eight years from 367 B.C. to 338 B.C. He established a strong government in Magadha. Being the ruler of a prosperous country, Mahapadmananda was destined to realize the dream of Magadhan imperialism. The puranas describe him as “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” or the destroyer of all the kshatriyas and the Ekrat or sole soverign.

From this it is implied that he uprooted the kshatriya dynasties such as Aikshavakus of Kosala, Panchalas of the Upper Ganges and Doab the Kasis, the Haihayas of Narmada Valley, the Kalingas of Orissa, the Asmakas of Godavari Valley in Hyderabad, the Kurus of Upper Ganges region on the confines of Punjab, the Maithilas of Mithila of Nepalese Terai, the Saurasenas of Mathura on the banks of the Jumna and Vitihotras of Western India adjacent to Avanti.

He also conquered Kalinga and it is proved by two passages of Hati-Gumpha Inscription of Kharavela. It is known from Hathigumpha Inscription that Nandaraja (Mahapadmananda) constructed some irrigation dams in the province and carried away the statue of first Jina from Kalinga as a war trophy.

The southern frontier of the Nanda empire extended up to Godavari Valley in the Deccan which is proved by the existence of a city called “Nav Nandar Dehra” on the Godavari. Thus under Mahapadma Nanda Magadhan empire was extended from Kuru country in the north to the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to the Narmada on the west. Under the Nandas the Magadhan empire reached the pinnacle of celebrity. According to Dr. R.K. Mukherjee ‘Mahapadma Nanda was the first great historical emperor of Northern India.’

The Successors of Mahapadma Nanda:

The Buddhist work Maha Bodhivamsa gives a list of the Nava Nandas in which Mahapandma Nanda and eight others are included. It is generally accepted by the scholars that the term Nava means nine and that the total number of kings of Nanda dynasty is nine. The Buddhist texts describe all the nine Nanda Kings as brothers. But the Puranas describe Mahapadma as the father and the eight Nandas as his sons. The scholars generally accepted the Puranic evidence. The Puranas have described that eight sons of Mahapadma Nanda ruled Magadha for twelve years. The Mahabodhivamsa mentions the name of the last Nanda king as Dhana Nanda who was also a contemporary of Alexander the Great.

The classical writers called Dhanda Nanda as Agrammes. He had a passionate love for hoarding treasures. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang also referred to his wealth. He inherited a vast empire from his father. He had a large standing army which included 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 3,000 elephants as described by the Greek historian Curticus. With his fabulous wealth and strong army Dhana Nanda became a powerful ruler of Magadha.

Fall of the Nandas:

Inspite of his power and wealth, Dhana Nanda lost the support of the people. He became unpopular among his people for three reasons which ultimately brought his downfall. Firstly, he taxed people heavily in order to meet the expenses of his vast army and also to satisfy his lust for wealth. Secondly, the low origin and anti-Kshatriya policy of the Nandas coupled with their leaning towards jainism created a number of enemies who were instrumental in bringing their downfall.

Thirdly, the people could find a leader in Chandragupta Maurya and overthrew the last Nanda king from the throne. With the fall of the Nandas, Magadha entered into another phase of her glorious history under the Mauryas. Under the maurya dynasty the Magadhan empire reached the apex of glory.