HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF KALINGA

              HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF KALINGA

                Author: Jimuta Naik, M.Phil(History)

Introduction

                         To understand the events of history of a country, a through knowledge of geography is essential without getting acquainted with the precise location of various places which figure prominently in the texts, it is impossible to  follow the course of events in any extent. Orissa consisted in ancient time several Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. The identification of these Janapadas and Mahajanapadas. The Identification of these Janapadas and Mahajanapadas is a prerequisite to study of cultural, political and religious history of this land properly. In course of our study we have made an attempt to delineate the geographical jurisdiction of several Janapadas that lie within ancient Orissa. The major Janapadas are Kalinga, Tosala, Utkala, Odra, South Kosala, Kangoda, Trikalinga, etc.

                                                               In the historical geography of ancient Orissa, Kalinga was regarded as one of the most important Janapadas and it had also played a significant role in the history of India through the ages. The geographical boundary of this territory was never a static one throughout the ancient period. But originally it was a small territory bordering on the Bay of Bengal by South Orissa and north Andhra. Its power was felt for and wide and its empire for sometimes embraced almost the whole of traditional Orissa as well as India,

                                                         The Puranic literature presents an interesting account about the origin of the Kalinga. The fifth in the line of Titiksu was king Bali who was blessed with five sons according to a story described in the Puranas and the Mahabharata.It is said that a blind Rsi named Dirghatamas who had been expelled from the hermitage because of gross immortality with the wife of his uncle (fathers brother) had been sheltered by king Bali who was childless. Queen Sudeshna at the request of her husband Bali gave birth to five sons in Union with Dirghatamas by the law of levirate. These sons were given the names of Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Pundra and Sumha and were described as Baleya Brahmanas or Baleya Khsatriyas . Bali divided his kingdom among his sons and the territories they obtained came to be known after their names. In this way Kalinga was named after its king .

                                                           On the other hand Kalingas are mentioned as a tribe in a number of ancient Indian literature, sacred and secular which apparently indicates that the country was known after the people. The Kalingas as a tribe and their capital city Dantapura are referred to in the oldest Sanskrit Buddhist Text, Mahavastu and also in several Jatakas. A Jain tradition of a remote period groups the Kalingas in to a class of the eastern Aryans. In Padma Purana Kalingas are mentioned twice; once with the Budhas, the Madras, the Kukuras and the Dasarnas, and again in the same chapter with the Drosaks, the Kiratas, the Tomaras and the Karabhanjakas. The Markandeya Purana refereed the Kalingas along with the Pulindas, Abhiras, Andhras, Vidrabhas and Kuntalas. In the Harivamsa we find them associated with the Pundras.

                                                      In Adi Parva and Santi Parva of Mahabharata, it is stated the Kalingas were defeated at different times by Sahadeva, Krishna, Bhima, Sikhandi, Jayadratha, Karna and Dronacharya. The king of Kalingsa who invited to joint the Bharata war on the side of Pandavas, but instead he joined on the side of Kauravas. In this war the King of Kalingas is said to have been fought with Arjuna, Bhima, Satyaki, Abhimanyu, Drurstadyumna and Nakula.

                                                   The Kalingas also found in secular literatures. They are referred to in the Arthasasthra of Kautilya and the Astadhyayi of Panini. The classical Greek writers have left valuable account regarding Kalinga and its people. Pliny specially mentioned the Kalinga tribe and their capital at Parthalis. There are many indigenous and foreign sources which describe about Kalingas. With all these references we can say with certainty that the Kalingas were an ancient tribe having a well developed society and an independent kingdom which was named after them.

Traditional boundary of Kalinga

                                                                  In ancient time the Kalingas had established an empire which had embraced almost the whole of traditional Orissa. The extent of this empire can be determined by analyzing different source materials. The Mahabharata indicates that Kalinga had extended upto the mouth of Ganges. In the Tirtha Yatra section of Vanaparva, the sage Lomasa stood on the mouth of the Ganges and pointed out to Yudhisthira saying “This is the territory of the Kalingas where flows the river Vaitarani”. B.C. law and D.C. Sircar interpret the verse in a defferent ways and suggest that the epic Kalinga comprised the eastern coast from the river Vaitarni to the mouth Godavari in Andhra. But in the verse of the epic the Vaitarani is clearly mentioned as a river following in the territory of Kaligna and not as its boundary line. From this verse we known that the river Ganges is the northern boundary of Kalinga.

                                              Regarding the north boundary of Kalinga is corroborated in the works of early Greek writers Meghathenes. He refers to a territory called Gangaridum Calinarum Regia and states that the river Ganges was its north eastern boundary. Pliny gives a clear picture of Kalinga territory which he divides into three parts namely Gangarides Calingae, Macco Calingae and Calingae with only one capital at Parthalis. Gangarides Calingae which is apparently same as Gangaridum Calingarum region identified the region on the bank of the Ganges near its mouth. Macco Calingae probably identified in the middle or central Kalinga empire comprising Utkala, Odra and Tosali region. Calingae was no doubt properly the home land of Kalinga people.

                                                    Pliny suggests that the southern boundary of Kalinga was Cape Calingae identified by Yule with point Godavari at the mouth of Godavari river. The Mahabharata refers that the capital of Kalinga was. Dantapura, identified with Dandagula of Pliny who locates it about 570 miles to the south of the Ganges mouth. All these shows that Kalinga at the height of its glory had extended from the Ganges in the north to the Godavari in the south.

                                               To determine the western extent of Kalinga., we have to rely on the evidences of the Puranas. The Puranas like Markendeya, Brahmanda and Vamsa, locates Kalinga in southern India or Dakshinapath. The Brahma  Purana places it in Madhyadesa. But the Matsya Purana describes Kalinga was both in Dakshinapatha and Madhyadesa and points out that the river Narmada drains the Amanataka, situated in the western part of Kalinga. The Kurma Purana locates kalinga in the south but includes the inland territory as far as Amarkantaka with its boundary. The Vayu and Skanda Purana also places the Amarkantaka on the western side of Kalinga. A critical studies of these evidences we believe that Kalinga was originally a country in Dakshinapatha, but it had established an empire extending to Madhyadesa. Above four Puraqnas locates Amarkantaka on the eastern side of Kalinga which suggesting that the hill formed the western boundary of the country. From the above we may concludes to say that Kalinga in its ancient time extended form the mouth of Ganges is the north to the mouth of the river Godavari in the south and from Bay of Bengal in the east to the Amakantaka hill in the Vandhya  range in the west.

Change the territorial extent of Kalinga from time to time:

                                                                    Due to the political instability territorial geographical extent of Kalinga kingdom change time to time and most probably from the end of the Bharata war to the foundation of the Nanda rule, the Kingdom of Kalinga was comes under the hands of 32 Kshatriya kings. Here i highlight the geographical extent of Kalinga under the supervision of Nanda rule to the time of Suryavamsi Gajapatis and the advent of Mughals in Orissa.

The boundary of Kalinga under the Nandas

                                                                              Line no. 5 in the Hatigumpha inscription of Kharavela mentions  the name of Nandaraja. It states that Kharavela extended an aqueduct that had been excavated by king Nandaraja in 4^th century B.C.E. Again lien No. 12 describes that Kharavela defeated a king of Magadha and brought back the Kalinga Jina image which had been taken away by Nanda king during his conquering to Kalinga. This inscription reveals that Kalinga was conquered by Mahapadmananda and it was annexed with Magadhan Empire^.

                                          Historian like R.K. Mukheerji, opines that Mahapadmananda conquered only a part of Kalinga and it was Ashoka who subjugated the whole of Kalinga. This view was not accepted by several modern scholars. In general, it is known from Puranas that Mahapadmananda conquered not only a part of Kalinga but also Assaka which lay to the South West of Kalinganagari the capital city of Kalinga conquered by Mahapadmananda. The entire territory came under therule of Mahapadmananda. During the time of Nanda rule the whole Kalinga from the Ganges to the Godavari was annexed with the Magadhan empire. Kalinga under the Mauryas After the fall of Nanda rule Kalinga assertion her independence. Pliny indicates that Kalinga had extended from the mouth of the Ganges to  the mouth of the Godavari in 261 B.C.E when Ashoka conquered it. The great emperor Ashoka reorganized the Kalinga territory. He incorporated the Gangetic region of North Kalinga with the province of Praci or Gangaridae came under the direct control. The middle Kalinga or Macco Kalinga (Utkala, Odra, and Tosali region formed a separate unit and Tosali its head quarters. The south portion of Kalinga formed another administrative unit with Sampa as its headquarters. This view was supported by the separate rock edicts of Ashoka engraved on the Dhauli near Tosali and on the Jaugarh near Somapa. Thus, Kalinga under Mauryan period was constituted in between the whole of Chilika lake and the river Godavari.

x

 Kalinga Under Attavikas

                                                The separate Kalinga edicts of Ashoka at Jaugarh provide information about the Attavikas. The forest clad territory on the west of Kalinga identified with Kalingaranya. This region probably a part of Dandakaranya and comprises the present Koraput and Bastar region. This area have been mentioned as Vidhyadhara territory in Hatigumpha inscription, Mahakantara region in Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta and original kingdoms of Nalas of Orissa. It was very close to Kalinga and later on known as Trikalinga or high upland of Kalinga.

Kalinga under Sungas and Kanvas

                                                            After the Kalinga war, the benevotelent administration of Ashoka and the spread of Budhism might have impact among the people of Kalinga. The coup of pushyamitra Sunga in 185 B.C. E Kalinga not so powerful. During this period Kalinga was subordinate by Sungas and Kanvas. The group of Pushyamitra Sunga perhaps could not make stable in Kalinga.

Kalinga under the Mahameghavahanas or Chedis

                                                                                                In the first century B.C.E. after the fall of Sungas and Kanvas, there emerged two powers namely the Satavahans in Maharashtra and the Mahameghanavanas in Kalinga. Line No. 1 and No. 3 of the Hatigumpha inscription mentioned Kharavela was the son of Chetaraja, belongs to the 3^rd generation of Mahameghavahana dynasty. The Hatigumpha inscription also reveals that territorial boundary of Kalinga under Kharavela had extended from Mathura in the North to the Pandya kingdom in the south and from the territories of Rathikas and Bhojakas of Maharashtra region in the west. During the time of Kahavela the traditional boundary of Kalinga region extended from the Ganges mouth to the mouth of the Godavari. After Kharavela we could not found any territorial evidences of Kalinga under his dynasty.

Kalinga under the Satavahanas

                                                             After Kharavela, in the first quarter of second century C.E. Kalinga was comes under the hands of Gautamiputra Satakarni. It is mentioned that, Kharavela had crushed the Satavahana power and it is Satakarni who rose in to power and conquered the Kalinga territories. From the Nasik cave inscription it is known that Satakarni has been described as the lord of Mountains like the Vindhyas, the Rksavat, Paripatra or Pariyatra, Sahya, Krishnagiri, Malaya, Mahendra and Svetagiri. Scholars believed that Krishnagiri has been referred  in the Ganjam copper plate chatter of the Sailodbhava king Madhavavarman. It is situated near Nirmalajhara in the ex-estate of Khalikote on the north eastern part of Ganjam district. Mountain Malaya is identified with Malayagiri near Pallahara of Dhenkanal district. Mount Mahendra is situated in Ganjam district and it is mentioned as Kula Parvata in many literary and epigraphical records⁹. The identification of Svetagiri is the modern Srikurman or Srikkakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. From the above all identifications of the mountains it is said that Kalinga territory was amalgamated in the Satavahana dynasty during the reign of Satakarni.

Kalinga under the Eve of Samudragupta

                                                                           The fall of Satavahana empire, the  territorial extent of Kalinga became  in obscurity till the conquered of Samundragupta. The Dathadhatuvamsa of the Ceylonese account mentioned that Guhasiva was a feudatory of Magadha flourished in Kalinga during circa 300 C.E. and a contemporary of the Ceylonese king Mahasena (277 – 304 C.E.). After the death of Guhasiva, Kalinga territory was divided into a number of small independent states and we could not found any unity among them. This situation of kalinga facilitated the invasion of Samudragupta, which mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription. In the south campaign Samudragupta conquered the territories namely south Kosala comprised the Raipur-Bilaspur district of Madhya Pradesh, Mahakantara located in Bastar-Koraput region. After these territories he marched towards the Kalinga and defeated Mantaraja of Korala, identified with a modern village named Karada on the boarder of Koraput close to the Srikakulam district on the bank of the Nagavali. In this way there was no severing power in Kalinga as existed in early period. From the Allahabad inscription we knew that Samudragupta also captured the Kalinga.

Kalinga under the Matharas

                                                    After Samudragupta the Matharas (350 – 500 C.E.) ruled over Kalinga from Sripura which has been identified with Vatia Sripura near the town Parlakhamundi. The first king of the family known as Visakhavarman who issued a copper plate grant, donates to the village Topoyakagrama. The find spot of the grant is one mile from Vatia Sirpura and eight miles from Parlakhemudi. Some of the Matharas rulers mentioned that, they were the master of Kalinga. The second ruler of the dynasty Umavarman issued Barang and Dhavalapeta copper plate grants from Sungara and also Tekkali grants from Vardhamanpura. All these grants show that during the time of Umavarman, Kalinga kingdom extended form the mount Mahendra to the river Godavari^.

                                      During the time of Saktivarman (400 C.E.) the Mathara kingdom rise to the height of glory. He issued the Ragolu plates from Pistapura, where he mentioned Pistapura was donated to a Brahmana. The Ningondi copper plate grant of Prabhanjanavarman reveals that during the time of Saktivarman the territory of Kalinga kingdom extended form river Mahanadi in the north to the river Krishna in the south. Marathas power began to decline in the 5^th century C.E. The Matharas issued 15 seats of copper plate grants and these grants mentioned about the territorial extent of Kalinga during their time.

Kalinga under the Vasisthas

                                                       After Matharas, the Vasisthas captured the Kalinga and assumed the title of Kalingadhipati. There were only three rulers of this dynasty namely Maharaja Gunavarman, his son Maharaja Prabhanjanavarman and third is Maharaja Anantavarman. Particularly in Srungvarapukota copper plate grants of Anantavarman, we know that king Gunavarman was described as lord of Kalinga. During the Vasisthas the Kalinga Kingdom was extended up to the river Godavari.

Kalinga under the Eastern Ganges

                                                                  The downfall of Vasisthas, led the rise of eastern Ganges and Kalinga empire comes under their supervision. Probably Harisena of Vakataka destroyed the Nalas and seems to have placed his Ganga general Indravarman in change of the Nala territories comprises modern Bastar, Koraput region which was known as Trikalinga. After that Indravarman tried to extend his kingdom towards the south. G. Ramdas identifies the ancient capital of Kalinga with the Dantapura. Hastivarman, the third ruler of eastern. Ganga dynasty, extended his territory from the mount Mahendra upto the Rusikulya and assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati^.

Kalinga under the Suryavamsi Gajapatis and Mughals

                                                                          During the time of 10^th century C.E. Kalinga falls in the hands of Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty. This time Kalinga designated as a Dandapata. A large number of inscriptions were found in this dynasty from Simhacalam and Srikurman which are stated that Kalinga Dandapata continued as a fiscal division even during the rule of the Mughals in Orissa¹³. The revenue settlement or bandobast introduced by Todar Mal in 1582 divided Orissa into five Sarkars namely (i) Jaleswar Sarkar from the river Rupanarayan to Valanga (2) Bhadrak Sarkar from the Valanga to Brahmani, (3) Kataka Sarkar from the Brahmani to Chilika lake (4) Kalinga-Dandapata from the Chilika lake to Rusikulya and (5) Rajmahendri Sarkar from Risikulya to Godavari. In 1571 Kalinga – Dandapata had been merged with Golkonda under the Qutab Sahi and the glorious territory of Kalinga kingdom now came to an end by forever.

Conclusion

                     From the above all discussion it is fairly known that from the ancient time to the dawn of medieval period the name Kalinga assumed most important history of Orissa. Because without its vat empire and its political dignity why the foreigners write about this land and why the great emperors of ancient India like Samudragupta, Ashoka and Satakarni undertook their expedition towards this territory. From this point of view I can concluse to say that Kalinga in ancient time assumed a vast territorial extent and its power was spread almost all over the ancient India. But it is clear that when the powerful ruler ruled over Kalinga they annexed many other territories with Kalinga empire and its geographical extent became vast and when the weak rulers ruled over it, suddenly its territorial extent falls in to narrow. Thus the Kalinga empire falls in the hands of many rulers and its territorial extent also depends upon their power and strength. The territorial extent of Kalinga known as from many ancient religious as well as secular sources. Geographical boundaries of this territory was never a static one, some times it receive large extent of territory and sometimes it reduced to a small principality. From the Nandas rule to the advent of Mughals it embracing much geographical dignities. Thus it can be conclude to say that Kalinga was an ancient name of present Orissa which in ancient time organized a vast territorial extent from the mouth of Ganges in the north to the mouth of river Godavari in the south and from Bay of Bengal in the east to Amarkantaka hill in the west.

Bibliographies

1.      Mishra, P.K. History of Orissa, Sambalpur, 1981.

2.      Pradhan, S. Orissan History, Cutlure and Archaeology. New Delhi, 1999.

3.      Ray, B.C. Orissa Under the Mughouts. Calcutta, 1981.

4.      Sahu. J.K. Historical Geography of Orissa. New Delhi, 1997.

5.      Sahu, N.K. History of Orissa, Cuttack, 1980.

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HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: Kalinga,Utkala, Odra, Tosali, Kangoda and Kosala

 HIS

TORICAL GEOGRAPHY: Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali, Kangoda and Kosala

Introduction :

                       In order to make a scientific study on the history of any land, a broad and thorough knowledge of its geography is essential. It will be certainly not easy on the part of a historian to look into the course of events unless he possesses accurate information about the precise location of various places that figure significantly in the narrative. On the other hand, no historian of a state can overlook the immense influence of its physical features that play a vital role in shaping the character of its people and their socioeconomic and political condition of a state.

Historical geography:

                                       The Geographical importance of places in relation to historical significance brings forward the concept of 'historical geography'. Historical geography essentially aims at the reconstruction of geography of a region of a period which has already passed. By putting together pieces of scattered evidence, all aspects of geography of that period can be reconstructed. In this context, the historical geography of ancient Odisha deserves special attention. The region now known as Odisha, was known in ancient times under various names, the most prominent of which were Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali , Kangoda and Kosala. To have an idea about the ancient geography of Odisha it is necessary to have an idea about the antiquity and extent of main ancient geographical units. Each of them during its historical existence found mention in different sources which provide interesting accounts about it. The ancient geographical units can be discussed as follows:

Kalinga :

               Among the different political units of this ancient land, Kalinga occupied a prominent place. The fertile coastal plains stretching from the mouth of the river Ganges up to Godavari, with mountains and forests, gave a natural boundary to Kalinga. The name Kalinga occurs in the  Puranas in association with Anga, Vanga, Pundra and Sumha. In the Mahabharata there is an indication about the location and the extent of Kalinga. In the Vana Parva the sage Lomasa pointed out, "This is the country of the Kalingas where flows the river Vaitarani." This evidence clearly indicates that the land now known as Odisha was included in the Kalinga country, but its extent in the Mahabharata age cannot be determined. The epic account also finds substantiation in the works of early Greek writers. In the description of Megasthenes, the river Ganges forms the eastern boundary of Kalinga. Pliny divides Kalinga into three parts Viz- Gangarides Calingae, Maceo Calingae and Calingae. Its southern boundary, as per Pliny's description, is limited on the bank of the river Godavari basing upon the puranas like Matsya, Kurma and Skanda, the western frontier of Kalinga is supposed to have stretched upon the Amrakantaka hills on the river bank of Narmada. Thus, as per the Puranic tradition, Kalinga is said to have extended up to the Gangetic valley in the north, the Godavari in the south, the sea in the east and the Amrakantaka hills in the west.

                                                       In the list of the sixteen Mahajanapadas of the sixth century B. C., described in the Pali literature Kalinga does not appear as one, but this omission does not mean that, Kalinga did not exist as a Mahajanapada or a great state. In the fourth century B. C., Kalinga was under the suzerainty of the Nandas. In the third century B. C. during the period between the Nandas and Mauryas, it slipped away from the fold of Magadhan imperialism. With Ashok's Kalinga war of 261 B. C., it came again under the authority of Magadha. His Special Edicts (also known as Kalinga Edicts) at Dhauli near Bhubaneswar, are addressed to the Mahamatras and the Kumaramatya (prince viceroy) of Toshali, while his same edicts at Jaugada in the Ganjam district are addressed to only the Mahamatras of Samapa. From these two inscriptions of Asoka now to be found in Odisha, it becomes apparent that for the sake of administration he had divided the Kalinga country into two broad divisions, northern and southern. In the northern division the capital Tosali was situated, while Samapa formed the second capital in the southern division. The evidence furnished by Asoka's Inscription thus clearly proves that Kalinga in his time included the entire region now known as Odisha, though its northern and southern boundaries cannot exactly be determined. It seems, however, that its southern boundary extended up to the river Godavari. The northern limits of Kalinga of Asoka's time cannot be determined.

                                                               Duuring the second century B.C. the present state of Odisha was certainly known as Kalinga as is evident by the fact that in the Hatigumpha Inscription at Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar, Kharavela is described as Kalingadhipati. During his reign, Kalinga expanded into an empire, the extent of which is variously determined by scholars. We do not know when his empire became dismembered, but even after the fall of his empire the land of Odisha continued to be called Kalinga. By the fourth century A.D. when Kalidasa wrote his Raghuvamsam, Kalinga seems to have been divided into two regions, of which the northern region was known as Utkala. In the fourth stanza of his work it is stated that the people of Utkala showed Raghu the path to Kalinga. In the Allahabad Inscription of Samudragupta, it is stated that during his southern campaigns Samudragupta conquered Kottura, Pishtapura, Erandapalli and Devarashtra, which have been identified with Kothoor in the Ganjam district, Pithapuram in the Godavari district, Erandapalli and Yellamachilli in the Visakhapatanam district respectively. In one of the earliest copper plate records of Odisha, known as Sumandala Copper Plates of Prithvivigraha, Kalinga as a rashtra (kingdom) has found mention, but in the subsequent medieval epigraphic records the name Kalinga does not appear. This does not, however, mean that Kalinga as a geographical name became extinct. It continued to be applied to the territory between Ganjam and the river Godavari in the subsequent ages down to the Ganga and Suryavamsi periods.

                                                          Dantapura, one of the early capitals of Kalinga, has not been identified. Various suggestions made by scholars about its location and its identity still remains to be confirmed by archaeological evidences. Kalinganagara which was capital of Kharavela, has tentatively been identified with Sisupalagarh near Bhubaneswar. The Early Eastern Gangas established their capital at a place which was also known as Kalinganagara and it has been identified with Mukhalingam in the Srikakulam district by Mr. R. Subbarao, though there are also other suggestions for its identification. Kalinganagara ceased to be the capital of the Gangas when Chodaganga conquered Odisha about A.D. 1110 and he chose Kataka (Cuttack), more centrally situated in his extended kingdom, as his new capital.

Utkala

          The territory of Utkala has been narrated in various Puranas. Utkala appears in the Mahabharata in association with the countries of Odras, Mekala, Kalinga,Darsana and Andhras. Tradition associates the origin of Utkala which Vaivasvata Manu who finds mention among the kings of India. It is said that Ila-Sudyumna, of the ten sons of Manu, who became male and female alternatively, gave birth to Utkala, Gaya,Vinitasva and Puru. He distributed the portion of his territory received from Manu among his sons and the land which came under the sway of Utkala was known as Utkala. This geographical name has also found mention in the Ramayana and is considered by some scholars to be older than Kalinga. Utkala has found mention in Kalidasa's Raghuvamsam as a neighbouring kingdom of Kalinga. The earliest epigraphic evidence of the extent of Utkala is gleaned from the Midnapur Plates of Somadatta, a feudatory of Sasanka. The name Utkala is not found thereafter in epigraphic records for a long time. Towards the final quarter of the seventh century A.D., the name Utkala appears in Adhabhara plates of Mahanannararaja of Sasivamsa which includes Utkala in the early Somavamsi Kindgom of Kosala. This geographical name also occurs in the copper plate grants up to the times of the Gangas of Odisha and Palas of Bengal. During the reigns of Ramapala of the Pala dynasty and Chodaganga of the Ganga dynasty the whole territory now known as Odisha appears to have been designated as Utkala. From the records of these kings it appears that Karnadeva, the last Somavamsi king, was driven out from his throne by Jayasimha, a lieutenant of Ramapala, but he was reinstated by Chodaganga. Even now the name Utkala is applied to the whole of Odisha. The earliest capital of Utkala was Viraja as is evidenced by the Soro Copper Plates. This place has been identified with Jajpur where the shrine of Viraja still exists. Viraja has also been mentioned in the Bhauma copper plate grants. Guhadeva Pataka or Gudhesvara Pataka, mentioned as the capital of the Bhaumas, was situated in its immediate neighbourhood.

Odra

        The present name of Odisha has been derived from the name Odra or Udra or Odraka. It appears as Urshin or Ursfin in the accounts of the Muslim geographers of the ninth and tenth century A.D. These geographers, who apparently collected information during the rule of the Bhauma-Karas in Odisha, give the divisions of the Bhauma kingdom as Urshin or Ursfin, Myas, Harkhand and Andras which have been identified with Odisha proper, Mahishya or Midnapore, Jharkhand (the hilly tracts of Odisha) and Andhra. Thus, the name Odisha appears to have existed as early as the tenth century A.D. if not earlier. The Tibetan historian Taranatha refers to Odisha as Odivisa which is apparently a Tibetan corruption of Odisa. In the later Muslim accounts and in the early Oriya literature the name Odisha finds frequent mention. The geographical unit of Odra has found mention in different ancient texts. The Pali texts make repeated mention of Oddaka and the Greek writers refer to Oretes which can be equated with Odra, mentioned in various Sanskrit texts. The Bhagabata Purana mentions Odra, among the six sons of Dirghatamas by queen Sudesna, after whom the land had been named. Pliny placed Oretes near mountain Malus which can be identified with Malayagiri near Pallahara in the pesent Angul district. Odra has also found mention in the Manusamhita where it is associated with the Paundrakas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Palavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasas. The earliest epigraphic records in which this geographical name appears as a Visaya or district, are the Soro Copper Plates of Somadatta from which it becomes apparent that it was a part of Uttara Tosali. Yuan Chwang mentions Odra or Wvcha not as a district, but as a kingdom, 7000 li in circuit. From this description it appears that it was a big kingdom occupying the coastal strip up to the Puri district from which the kingdom of Kongoda began. In his accounts of Odra Yuan Chwang mention two important places, Che-li-ta-lo and Pue-sie-poki-li, of which the later place has been satisfactorily transcribed as Puspagiri. Recently some scholars have identified the ‘Dimond Triangle’ i.e. the Buddhist monasteries at Ratnagiri, Udaygiri and Lalitgiri as the probable site of Puspagiri. However, much research is needed for the exact location of Puspagiri. In the inscriptions of the Somavamsis and other contemporary dynasties Odra as a kingdom has also found frequent reference.

Tosali

          Tosala or Tosali formed an important political unit in ancient Odisha. It has been described frequently in ancient Indian texts. It is mentioned in the 'Parisistha' of Atharva Veda along with Kosala and the Puranas have associated the people of this territory with Kotalas, Nisadas, Traipuras, Tumuras, Valdisas etc. The Jaina text Avasyaka Niryukti mentions about this land as follows: "Lord Mahavira, in the eleventh year of his monkship, came to Tosali where he was taken to be a robber and hit hard. From here, the venerable teacher went to Masoli, where too he was taken to be a robber, was arrested and brought to the king's court, but was released as the king was a friend of Mahavir's father. On his return jurney from Masoli Mahavira again came to Tosali. Here, again, he was caused great troubles and was on the point of being hanged when he was rescued through the timely interference of the Tosali-Kshatriyas.

                                                In Asoka's inscription at Dhauli, Tosali has found mention as a city which has been identified by some scholars with modern Sisupalagarh, but Tosali or Tosala as the name of a territory also occurs in the subsequent literature and epigraphic records. In the Gandavyuha, a part of the Buddhist Avatamsaka, there is the mention of a country named Amita Tosala, the chief city of which was Tosala. Tosali as a territory has found mention in the copper plate records of Sambhuyasa and Lokavigraha and it also occurs in the Bhauma copper plate grants. From these references it appears that Tosali was divided into two parts, northern and southern. With regard to the extent of these divisions. N. K. Sahu observes that “the extent of the territories of both the Tosalis can be tentatively known from the Soro, Patiakela, Midnapore and Kanasa Copper Plates. The modern Midnapore, Mayurbhanj and Balasore districts as well as the northern part of the Kataka (Cuttack) district may be said to have formed the kingdom of Uttara Tosali, while Daksina Tosali comprised roughly the modern Puri district and parts of Cuttack and Ganjam districts upto the river Rishikulya and the river Mahanadi appears to be the dividing line between the two territories.”

Kangoda

              Kangoda was another geographical unit of ancient Odisha. It was during the Sailodbhava dynasty, Kongoda came into eminence. Kongoda may be explained as the “Land of Honey” as Kongu in Tamil means honey. This was a Mandala state and flourished in the sixth-seventh century A.D. It continued as parts of Kalinga and Odra. The Sailodbhavas gave this Kongoda Mandala (undivided Ganjam district) its true shape. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited Kongoda about 638 A. D. states that this country was above 1000 Ii in circuit. The country contained some tens of towns from the slope of the hills to the edge of the sea". Accordingly, it is presumed that it was about 200 miles in circumference and it was a hilly country bordering on the Bay of Bengal. By the time of Hiuen Tsang's visit, Kongoda had emerged as a powerful kingdom under the Sailodbhavas.

                                                 On Hiuen Tsang's observation, T. Watters write that "As the towns are naturally strong, there was a gallant army which kept the neighbouring country in awe, and so there was no enemy." The towns referred to in the Hiuen Tsang's accounts are Gudda, Kondenda, Saumyapura, Matrachandra-pataka, Jaya Kataka, Devagrama, Nivina and Phasika. These towns have not been satisfactorily identified. Vijaya Kongodvasaka appears to be the capital of Kongoda mandala which has been identified with modern Bankada in the light of the antiquities found there on the river bank of Salia. Harsavardhan, after the death of King Sasanka of Gauda subjugated Kongoda. R. S. Tripathi observes that "Harsa made this region a strong military outpost of his far-flung empire, probably with a view to preventing any foreign incursion on the borders, threatened as they were by the eastward advance of Pulakesin II". With the death of Harsa in 647 A.D. Madhavaraja II, the Sailodbhava King of Kongoda maintained his power and ruled for a long time which is revealed by his Cuttack charter. Thus, Kongoda got back her independence shortly after the death of Harsavardhan. With the fall of the Sailodbhavas, in the first half of the eighth century A.D., Kongoda mandala lost its glory. Subsequently, it was reduced to a Visaya (district) of Dakshina Tosali when the BhaumaKaras emerged as a dominant political power and united both the Tosalis i.e. North Tosali and South Tosali.

Kosala

            Kosala as a geographical unit was existed in ancient Odisha. The earliest depiction of Kosala is found in the Parisistha of the Atharvaveda. The Epics and the Puranas also throw light on its ancient history. It was named after- like Kalinga, Utkala and Odra - an ancient people called Kosalas. The kingdom of Kosala was divided into two units- Uttara (north) and Daksina (south) from very early time. The territory of Kosala is attributed to a mythical origin. Rama, the Prince of Kosala, being banished with his brother Laxmana and his wife Sita travelled south from Ayodhya to Prayaga. Travelling south-west up to Narmada valley, he came up to a place identified with modern Chhatisgarh area. He dwelt there for at least a decade. Pargiter opines that his long stay in that region gave rise to the name Dakshina Kosala (South Kosala), after his original homeland Kosala. The Ramayana projects the fact that after Rama, the kingdom of Kosala was divided between his two sons-Lava and Kusa holding sway over North Kosala and South Kosala respectively. Sravasti was the centre of political activities for North Kosala while Kusavati or Kusthalipura, near the Vindhyas, was regarded as the citadel of political power for Southern Kosala.

                                             Kosala also finds mention in the "Vana Parva' of the Mahabharata. Of course, the great epic remains silent about Uttara Kosala (North Kosala) which comprised the Ayodhya region. However, H. C. Raychaudhuri locates Dakshina Kosala in the territory comprising the modern districts of Bilaspur, Raipur and undivided Sambalpur. The Allahabad pillar inscription of Harisena includes Kosala among the territories of Dakshinapatha which were subjugated by Samudragupta. Kosala along with Mekala and Malava formed the empire of the Vakatakas and after their fall, it came under the grip of the Sarbapuriyas. Hiuen Tsang who visited Kosala in 639 A D. described the kingdom as 6000 li in circuit. As per the description, it may be presumed that Kosala comprised the districts of Bilaspur and Raipur in Madhya Pradesh along with the undivided districts of Sundargarh, Sambalpur and Bolangir in Odisha. Kosala remained under the Somavamsis in the eighth-ninth century A.D. At about the middle of the ninth century A.D. when Kalachuris of Dahala became a rival power of the Somavamsis, the latter had to shift the centre of their political activities to Sripura which was captured by the Kalachuris subsequently. Then, the Somavamsis had to shift their head quarters to various places like Murasimakataka, Arama and Vinitapura identified with Murshing, Rampur and Binaka respectively, all in the Bolangir district. With the annexation of Khinjali mandala, Yajatinagara became the capital of Kosala. The formidable Somavamsi king Yajati II brought Kosala and Utkala under one umbrella about the middle of the eleventh century A. D., making Suvarnapura (at the confluence Mahanadi and Tel) the capital of Kosala and Yajatinagar, (Viraja in Jajpur) the capital of Utkala. When the Somavamsi power declined away, the Telugu Chodas occupied Kosala towards the close of the eleventh century A.D. They were subsequently driven away by the Kalachuris who established their sway over the region for a long time till the Gangas established their authority over this region and their rule continued till the middle of fourteenth century A.D. Outsting them from power, the Chauhans rose to political prominence and made Sambalpur the centre of their political ativities. They became the overlord eighteen states (Atharagarha) comprising almost the whole Kosala country described by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang.

Conclusion

                      Thus, all these geographical units have played their roles in the enrichment of political and cultural history of the Odisha. As we observe that Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali , Kongoda and Kosala were territories having distinct boundaries of their own and the boundary changed from time to time in ancient and early medieval period. Sometimes, it is noticed that some of these names were used as interchangeable terms, e.g. Odra was known as Tosali during the Bhaumakara At the advent of fifteenth century A.D. poet Sarala Dasa made Udisa or Odisha synonym with Odrarastra which became Odisha rajya during the great Gajapatis. Right from the days of Kapilendradeva (1435-1467 A.D.), this empire land of the Odia speaking people has been known as Odisha.

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: Kalinga

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: Kalinga

Introduction :

                       In order to make a scientific study on the history of any land, a broad and thorough knowledge of its geography is essential. It will be certainly not easy on the part of a historian to look into the course of events unless he possesses accurate information about the precise location of various places that figure significantly in the narrative. On the other hand, no historian of a state can overlook the immense influence of its physical features that play a vital role in shaping the character of its people and their socioe conomic and political condition of a state.

Historical geography:

The Geographical importance of places in relation to historical significance brings forward the concept of 'historical geography'. Historical geography essentially aims at the reconstruction of geography of a region of a period which has already passed. By putting together pieces of scattered evidence, all aspects of geography of that period can be reconstructed. In this context, the historical geography of ancient Odisha deserves special attention. The region now known as Odisha, was known in ancient times under various names, the most prominent of which were Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali , Kangoda and Kosala. To have an idea about the ancient geography of Odisha it is necessary to have an idea about the antiquity and extent of main ancient geographical units. Each of them during its historical existence found mention in different sources which provide interesting accounts about it. The ancient geographical units can be discussed as follows:

Kalinga :

               Among the different political units of this ancient land, Kalinga occupied a prominent place. The fertile coastal plains stretching from the mouth of the river Ganges up to Godavari, with mountains and forests, gave a natural boundary to Kalinga. The name Kalinga occurs in the  Puranas in association with Anga, Vanga, Pundra and Sumha. In the Mahabharata there is an indication about the location and the extent of Kalinga. In the Vana Parva the sage Lomasa pointed out, "This is the country of the Kalingas where flows the river Vaitarani." This evidence clearly indicates that the land now known as Odisha was included in the Kalinga country, but its extent in the Mahabharata age cannot be determined. The epic account also finds substantiation in the works of early Greek writers. In the description of Megasthenes, the river Ganges forms the eastern boundary of Kalinga. Pliny divides Kalinga into three parts Viz- Gangarides Calingae, Maceo Calingae and Calingae. Its southern boundary, as per Pliny's description, is limited on the bank of the river Godavari basing upon the puranas like Matsya, Kurma and Skanda, the western frontier of Kalinga is supposed to have stretched upon the Amrakantaka hills on the river bank of Narmada. Thus, as per the Puranic tradition, Kalinga is said to have extended up to the Gangetic valley in the north, the Godavari in the south, the sea in the east and the Amrakantaka hills in the west.

                                                       In the list of the sixteen Mahajanapadas of the sixth century B. C., described in the Pali literature Kalinga does not appear as one, but this omission does not mean that, Kalinga did not exist as a Mahajanapada or a great state. In the fourth century B. C., Kalinga was under the suzerainty of the Nandas. In the third century B. C. during the period between the Nandas and Mauryas, it slipped away from the fold of Magadhan imperialism. With Ashok's Kalinga war of 261 B. C., it came again under the authority of Magadha. His Special Edicts (also known as Kalinga Edicts) at Dhauli near Bhubaneswar, are addressed to the Mahamatras and the Kumaramatya (prince viceroy) of Toshali, while his same edicts at Jaugada in the Ganjam district are addressed to only the Mahamatras of Samapa. From these two inscriptions of Asoka now to be found in Odisha, it becomes apparent that for the sake of administration he had divided the Kalinga country into two broad divisions, northern and southern. In the northern division the capital Tosali was situated, while Samapa formed the second capital in the southern division. The evidence furnished by Asoka's Inscription thus clearly proves that Kalinga in his time included the entire region now known as Odisha, though its northern and southern boundaries cannot exactly be determined. It seems, however, that its southern boundary extended up to the river Godavari. The northern limits of Kalinga of Asoka's time cannot be determined.

                                                               Duuring the second century B.C. the present state of Odisha was certainly known as Kalinga as is evident by the fact that in the Hatigumpha Inscription at Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar, Kharavela is described as Kalingadhipati. During his reign, Kalinga expanded into an empire, the extent of which is variously determined by scholars. We do not know when his empire became dismembered, but even after the fall of his empire the land of Odisha continued to be called Kalinga. By the fourth century A.D. when Kalidasa wrote his Raghuvamsam, Kalinga seems to have been divided into two regions, of which the northern region was known as Utkala. In the fourth stanza of his work it is stated that the people of Utkala showed Raghu the path to Kalinga. In the Allahabad Inscription of Samudragupta, it is stated that during his southern campaigns Samudragupta conquered Kottura, Pishtapura, Erandapalli and Devarashtra, which have been identified with Kothoor in the Ganjam district, Pithapuram in the Godavari district, Erandapalli and Yellamachilli in the Visakhapatanam district respectively. In one of the earliest copper plate records of Odisha, known as Sumandala Copper Plates of Prithvivigraha, Kalinga as a rashtra (kingdom) has found mention, but in the subsequent medieval epigraphic records the name Kalinga does not appear. This does not, however, mean that Kalinga as a geographical name became extinct. It continued to be applied to the territory between Ganjam and the river Godavari in the subsequent ages down to the Ganga and Suryavamsi periods.

                                                          Dantapura, one of the early capitals of Kalinga, has not been identified. Various suggestions made by scholars about its location and its identity still remains to be confirmed by archaeological evidences. Kalinganagara which was capital of Kharavela, has tentatively been identified with Sisupalagarh near Bhubaneswar. The Early Eastern Gangas established their capital at a place which was also known as Kalinganagara and it has been identified with Mukhalingam in the Srikakulam district by Mr. R. Subbarao, though there are also other suggestions for its identification. Kalinganagara ceased to be the capital of the Gangas when Chodaganga conquered Odisha about A.D. 1110 and he chose Kataka (Cuttack), more centrally situated in his extended kingdom, as his new capital.

Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)

Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)

Paleolithic
Hominins expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 millions years before the present. This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years before the present, and in East Asia by 1.36 million years before present, as well as the discovery of stone tools made by proto-humans in the Soan River valley, at Riwat, and in the Pabbi Hills, all in present-day Pakistan. Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of fluvial sediments, has not been independently verified.
The oldest hominini fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago. Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable. Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years before the present, from which point onward archaeological evidence of proto-human presence is widely point. Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago although this interpretation is disputed.

 Neolithic
More extensive settlement of the Indian subcontinent occurred during the Neolithicperiod after the end of the last Ice Ageapproximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi-permanent[clarification needed]settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. The Edakkal Caves are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000 BCE, from the Neolithic man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in Kerala

 Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, represented by the Bhirrana findings (7570–6200 BCE) in Haryana, India, Lahuradewafindings (7000 BCE) in Uttar Pradesh, India,[41]and Mehrgarh findings (7000–5000 BCE) in Balochistan, Pakistan; and later in Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation

INDIAN CIVILIZATION FORM 3RD MILLENNIUM BCE TO 1526 AD

Indian civilization form 3rd millennium BCE to 1526 Ad

According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. However, the earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Contemporaneous human rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh. Settled life, which involves the transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism, began in South Asia around 7,000 BCE. At the site of Mehrgarh, Baluchistan, Pakistan, presence can be documented of the domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed by that of goats, sheep, and cattle.[3] By 4,500 BCE, settled life had spread more widely,[3] and began to gradually evolve into the Indus Valley Civilization, an early civilization of the Old world, which was contemporaneous with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This civilisation flourished between 2,500 BCE and 1900 BCE in what today is Pakistan and north-western India, and was noted for its urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage, and water supply.

In early second millennium BCE persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Around the same time, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from regions further northwest in several waves of migration. The resulting Vedic period was marked by the composition of the Vedas, large collections of hymns of these tribes whose postulated religious culture, through synthesis with the pre-existing religious cultures of the subcontinent, gave rise to Hinduism. The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose later during this period. Towards the end of the period, around 600 BCE, after the pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain, large swaths of which they deforested to pave way for agriculture, a second urbanisation took place. The small Indo-Aryan chieftaincies, or janapadas, were consolidated into larger states, or mahajanapadas. This urbanisation was accompanied by the rise of new ascetic movements, including Jainism and Buddhism, which challenged the primacy of rituals, presided by Brahmin priests, that had come to be associated with Vedic religion, and gave rise to new religious concepts.

Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards Prakrit and Paliliterature in the north and the Tamil Sangam literature in southern India started to flourish. Wootz steel originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries. During the Classical period, various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the Gupta Empirestands out. This period, witnessing a Hindureligious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of Southeast Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia (Greater India).

The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite strugglecentred on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notably the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Chalukya Empires. The Chola dynastyconquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Bengal[14] in the 11th century. In the early medieval period Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, and the Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by Central Asian Turkswho ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century. This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably Vijayanagara, Gajapati, and Ahom, as well as Rajput states, such as Mewar. The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,[20] becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior than the combination of Europe's GDP. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Marathas, Sikhs, Mysoreans and Nawabs of Bengal to exercise control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent.

From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually annexed by the East India Company, a chartered company acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British government. Dissatisfaction with Company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which rocked parts of north and central India, and let to the dissolution of the Company. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, and noted for nonviolence. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.