THE MAHAMEGHAVAHANAS: Career and achievements of Kharavela

Kharavela: The Legend

Aira Maharaja Mahameghavahana Kharavela (193 BC – 170 BC) was one of the greatest kings of ancient India. The main source of information about this great ruler is his seventeen line rock cut at Hati Gumpha cave in the Udaygiri hills near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. According to the inscriptions, Kharavela belonged to the Chedi clan. He possessed many auspicious signs on his body, was gifted with many qualities and was handsome in appearance. He was the first great historical monarch of ancient Kalinga who belonged to the soil.

Early life

             For first fifteen years of his life, Kharavela was groomed through for his future role. The princely education system of ancient India is depicted in the inscriptions of Hati Gumpha. The future kings in their early life were obliged to pass through a system of education and learning, in order to dispense their royal duty effectively. They were required to be proficient in five main subjects:

Lekha (Writing): Mode of state correspondence, necessary for administration.

Rupa (Coinage): Science of currency or money.

Ganana (Arithmetic): Subject of absolute need, specially for administrators.

Vyavahara (Law): Knowledge of judicial system as well as of the established Law of the land.

Vidhi (Procedure): A wide subject which included the usages and customs, various established rules relating to Niyama or Samstha or Dharmasastra. 

                                                      Similar subjects of education have some other ancient works like Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Apart from these five subjects, Kharavela also earned knowledge in various other arts.

Crown Prince Kharavela

                                 At the age of 15, Kharavela became the Yuvaraja (Crown Prince), to assume his royal responsibilities. With a sound educational background, he as the Crown Prince acquired practical experience of administration while learning more and more of the above branches of knowledge.

                                           At the age of 24 years, Kharavela was crowned as the king of Kalinga and began his glorious rule. He belonged to the third generation of the Mahameghvahana dynasty (250BC – 400 AD).

Kharavela: The King

 1st year of reign

          By the time Kharavela took to the thrones, his capital city Kalinganagari was earlier devastated by a mighty storm.  Thus it became his priority to fortify the city by going for major repairs and reconstructions. He repaired the gates, ramparts and structures of Kalingnagari. The condition of tanks and gardens also were improved for the beautification of the city. The cost of such work as per Hati Gumpha inscriptions was Thirty five hundred thousand and the entire expense was disbursed from the royal treasury, without passing on the taxes to the people. His subjects were pleased by the king’s works of public welfare.

 2nd year of reign

                              Having strengthened the capital city, Kharavela enlarged his army which was already strong and big under the earlier Mahameghavana kings. As per Hati Gumpha inscriptions,  Kharavela launched a military attack on the powerful King Satakarni-I of the Satavahana dynasty of South.                                                              

                          The Mahameghavahanas of Kalinga and the Satavahanas of the south were contemporary rivals. The Satavahana king Satakarni-I was ruling over the Krishna Godavari region as well as the Maharashtra region next towards the river Krishna. Kharavela proved the might of the Kalingan forces by an invasion, with a large army consisting of horses, elephants, infantry and chariots. The army struck terror in the city of Asika or Asikanagara which was probably situated between the rivers Krishna and Godavari. The expedition of the Kalingan army in western and southern directions proved that Kharavela was powerful enough to challenge the Satavahana supremacy in the Deccan.

3rd year of reign

                        After the successful show of strength outside his own territory, Kharavela focussed on patronising ancient musical traditions of India during the third year of his reign. Himself being well versed in the Gandarva Veda (Arts & science of Music), he arranged festivals and performances like dancing, singing and playing of vocal and instrumental music in the capital city of Kalingnagari. Large scale feast were organised to please the population of his capital.

 4th year of reign

                      In the fourth year of his reign, Kharavela consolidated his position in a territory named Vidyadhara. According to the inscription, Vidyadhara was established by the earlier kings of Kalinga but had never been crushed before. The consolidation might mean that a turbulent area within the kingdom or on its borders was crushed and subdued. The same year, Kharavela also launched his second invasion of the Satavahana kingdom. His first invasion perhaps was inconclusive, so a more determined effort was launched to conquer the Western and Southern regions of India. This campaign resulted in great victory for the Kalingan forces. The Hati Gumpha Inscriptions describe the victory as: “The Rashtrika and Bhojaka Chiefs with their crown cast off, their umbrella and royal insignia thrown aside, and their jewellery and wealth confiscated, were made to pay obeisance at the feet (of Kharavela).” The Rashtrikas and the Bhojakas were ancient races who lived in the Berar and Maharashtra regions, guarding two sides of the Satavahana territory. The defeat of the chiefs was a blow to the Satavahana power. Kharavela’s victory over them brought a large part of the Deccan within the Kalinga Empire.

5th year of reign

                   In the fifth year of his reign, Kharavela once again turned his attention to the development of his capital. A canal which had been dug by Nadaraja ti-vasa-sata ago, was extended to flow into Kalinganagari through Tanasuli. Tanasuli most probably was Tosali and Kharavela might have extended the canal to his expanding capital by way of the old city of Tosali.

6th year of reign

                   The sixth year of Kharavela’s rule saw his great charitable activities and benevolent measures which were meant for both the urban and rural populations of the empire. He remitted all taxes and cesses to the extent of many hundred thousands of coins. It was like a display of the wealth of the king which was meant for the happiness of the people.

7th year of reign

                       In the seventh year, Kharavela’s chief queen, named as the ‘Queen of Vajiraghara’ gave birth to a son.

8th year of reign

                           Kharavela began his military campaigns in the North during the eighth year of his reign. His armies marched towards the ancient city of Rajagriha. The fort of Gorathagiri, which stood to protect Rajagriha, was stormed and destroyed. The fort of Gorathagiri, identified with the modern Barabar hill, was like a military fortification to protect the capital of Magadha, Pataliputra. When that strong fortification was demolished and the city of Rajagriha was brought under the control of the Kalinga army, the people of Pataliputra were struck with fear and terror.

                                            At that very time something happened which will highlight the strength of Kharavela’s character. After victory over Rajagriha, when the victorious Kalingan army of Kharavela was advancing towards the capital of Magadha, the Indo-Greek invaders under their king were also advancing towards Magadha. Having occupied Mathura, the Yavana King thought of invading Pataliputra. Unfortunately the identity of the Yavana king could not be established due to the damage in the inscriptions of Hati Gumpha. It is known, however, from the inscription that when the Yavana King heard of Kharavela’s advance towards Pataliputra, in fear and panic, he quickly retreated towards his stronghold at Mathura. Magadha was thus saved from foreign invasion because of Kharavela’s military power. Kharavela thereafter followed the Yavanas towards Mathura and attacked them. They were defeated and driven out of Mathura by the forces of the Kalinga Emperor. Kharavela chose to drive the foreign invader over defeating his arch rival, the king of Magadha. The victorious monarch thereupon entered Mathura with his horses, elephants and chariots and “distributed (gifts) to all houses and inns and with a view to making gifts universal gave away the spoils of victory to the Brahmanas.” Kharavela’s northern expedition was, thus, a grand success. He had shown his power to the Magadhan people and also to the foreign power by his victories over them.

9th year of reign

                     In the ninth year of his rule, Kharavela built the Great Victory palace (the Mahavijaya Prasada), in his capital Kalinganagari. The cost of construction of the palace was estimated to be a whopping Thirty eight hundred thousand coins.

10th year of reign

                                     In the tenth year of his reign, Kharavela once again led his army to the North, describing it as a march towards Bharatavarsa for conquests. This second invasion of the North also ended in victory and success.

11th year of reign

                               In the eleventh year of his reign, Kharavela received jewels and precious stones from his defeated enemies. That year, he achieved a great military victory in the South. There existed a confederacy of the Tamil states in the South, consisting of the territories of the Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputra and Tamraparni (Ceylon).                                                                      The Kalinga ruler thought it necessary to break its power for his own hegemony in the South. The Hati Gumpha Inscription states that this Confederacy had maintained its political unity for 1300 years before the time of Kharavela. In his inscriptions, Asoka mentioned of these people as living independently outside the Maurya Empire. When Kharavela extended his power over the Deccan during his earlier invasions of the South, the Tamil powers took alarm. A struggle for supremacy in the South thus became natural and Kharavela came out successful in his battles against the Tamil States. He defeated their combined armies and destroyed their ancient Confederacy which had existed for centuries.

12th year of reign

                 In the twelfth year of his reign, with more military campaign, Kharavela took up his third invasion of the North. According to Hati Gumpha Inscription, Kharavela terrorised the kings of Uttarpatha by an army of hundred thousand. His soldiers entered into the Magadhan territory, and “generated great fear among the people of Magadha while making the elephants and horses drink in the Ganges.” Kharavela forced the ruling king of Magadha, Brihaspatimitra, to surrender. It was, Kharavela’s revenge upon Magadha for the role which the famous king of Magadha, Mahapadma Nanda had played centuries earlier. The Hati Gumpha Inscription describes that after his great victory, Kharavela brought back from there “the image of Kalinga Jina with its throne and endowment that had been taken away by King Nanda and the Jewels plundered by him from the Kalinga royal palace, along with the treasures of Anga and Magadha.” It is supposed that during this third invasion of the north, Kharavela’s army was led to distant lengths of Uttarapatha in the north-west India. Kharavela’s victory over the north was his greatest achievement as a conqueror. His victory over Magadha, in particular, was like the crowning glory of his heroic career.

                                       After such a remarkable role as a conqueror and a military genius, Kharavela suddenly changed the course of his career and turned to religious activities. As a Jaina monarch, he entered upon his new role to champion the cause of Jainism.

13th year of reign

             In the thirteenth year of his reign, one finds him as ‘Upasaka Sri Kharavela’ as described in the Hati Gumpha inscription. Even in that year when Kharavela was putting an end to his rule as a conqueror, the King of the Pandyas brought from the south “various pearls, jewels and precious stones hundred thousand in number” to be deposited at the feet of Kharavela in his capital Kalinganagari.

                                                 The Hati Gumpha Inscription suddenly closes itself by describing the religious activities of Kharavela in his thirteenth regional year. That year, therefore, is taken as the last of Kharavela’s reign. He might have lived for long after giving up kingship and while devoting his years to religious activities. But the accounts of that part of his life have not survived for future.

                                         Thus in a brief period of his role as a king, Kharavela achieved splendid victories in Western, Southern and Northern India. He established his supremacy over a large part of India raising thereby the status of Kalinga to that of an empire. Rightly, therefore, Kharavela has been described in the Manchapuri Cave inscription of his chief queen as the ‘Chakravarti’ monarch of Kalinga.

  

THE MAHAMEGHAVAHANAS: Career and achievements of Kharavela

THE MAHAMEGHAVAHANAS:

Career and achievements of Kharavela, Time of his rule

Introduction

                     The history of Kalinga after the Maurya rule is obscure and it is not known exactly when this country regained its independence. A flood of light is focused upon this dark period of Odish an history with the discovery of Hatigumpha inscription at Udayagiri in Bhubaneswar. The facts described in this inscription undoubtedly proves that its author Kharavela, the mighty monarch was a remarkable figure in the contemporary India. His mighty sword blasted the vanity of Kalinga's age-old enemy Magadha and subjugated a vast area under Kalingan suzerainty. Under his reign Kalinga reached the pinnacle of glory. The facts narrated in the Hatigumpha inscription has been amply corroborated by the excavation at Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneswar and through some figures engraved in different caves at Udyagiri. The Hatigumpha inscription at Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar describes in details about the career and achievement of Kharavela, the mighty ruler of Mahameghvahana family.

The Mahameghavahanas

                                          The Hatigumpha inscription mentions that Kharavela belonged to the Mahameghavahana family of the Chedi clan. The Chedis were originally ruling in Madhyadesa or Magadha and it has been suggested that a branch of this royal family of the hoary ambiguity, came to Kalinga and established its sway over it. We do not know when they migrated to Kalinga, but from the Hatigumpha inscription it becomes apparent that Kharavela was the third member of the Kalingan Chedis. 

                                                   Kharavela is introduced as 'Airena Maharajena, Mahameghavahanena and Chetarajavasavadhanena'. Each part of the expression has admitted of controversies. Barua reads 'Aira' as 'Veera' meaning hero but explains it as a royal title' Ayira' meaning Svami i.e., master or lord. Mahameghavahana is considered to be the grandfather of Kharavela, the founder of the dynasty in Kalinga which came to be known as Mahameghavahana after his name. Like the Satavahanas of the South, Mahameghavahana dynasty was established in Kalinga. The Manchpuri cave inscription describes Kharavela's son as 'Maharaja-Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana- Kudepasiri'. Another inscription at Guntupalli in West Godavari district of A.P. (cir. 1st century B.C.) in the same Brahmi script and Prakrit language refers to "Mahameghavahana-Kalinga- Mahisakadhipati-Siri-Sada". "Cetarajavasavadhanena" has been interpreted as one who increases the glory of the Cedi dynasty. The latest view in the regard is that Chetaraja was the father of Kharavela. Kharavela, the son of Cetaraja, was the third ruler Mahameghavahana dynasty also known as Kalingarajavamsa. The Hathigumpha inscription precisely records his career and achievements up to thirteen years of his reign.

Career and achivements of Kharavela

                                                              The career and achievements of Kharavela has gone through two phases, (1) his career as a prince and (2) his career and achievement as a ruler.

His Career as a Prince

                                       The inscription opens with a salutation to the Jaina saints and then gives us some ideas about the childhood and the boyhood of Kharavela before accession to the throne. It is said that he was born with auspicious physical marks and noble qualities which were indicative of his future greatness as a ruler. Till the fifteenth year, he spent his time in different types of sports and games. During this period he also acquired knowledge in different branches of learning, which were essential for discharging royal duty, such as writing or correspondence (Lekha), finance, currency (Rupa), arithmetic (Ganana) and law (Vldhl and Vyvahara). As a prince, Kharavela underwent training in the art of warfare (Dhanuryidya), music and dance (Gandharvavidya) and religion. In the fifteenth year he became the crown prince and started probation in the practical field of administration. At the age of twenty four, he was crowned king by assuming the title Kalingadhipati and gave his subjects a sound administration.

His career and achievement as a ruler

                                                                   After giving a description of his early life up to the 24th year, the Hatigumpha inscription records the events of his 13 years' reign chronologically.

Renovation of his capital

                                               In his first regnal year, he involved himself in the renovation work by repairing the gates and buildings of his capital Kalinganagara, which had been destroyed by a furious cyclone. He employed people to dig a deep lake and to create beautiful gardens. These repairs and some other public works in the same year cost him thirty-five lakhs of coins from the royal exchequer. This fact has been amply corroborated with the excavation at Sisupalgarh that brings out the remnants of defensive ramparts gateways, high rowers etc.

 Expedition against Satavahana king

                                                               Kharavela possessed a large army, consisting of infantry, cavalry, elephant force and chariots. Having made adequate preparation, he undertook expedition against the powerful Satavahan king, Satakarni-I in the second year of his rule. Satakarni-I was ruling over a vast empire, comprising northern part of modern Maharashtra, western part of modern Madhya Pradesh and Andhra region. Kharavela's army advanced up to the Krishna river and besieged the city of Rishikanagara which was obviously situated within the Satavahan territory

Entertainment of his subjects

                                             After the southern campaign, Kharavela provided entertainment to his subjects in the third year. Kalinganagari, the capital of Kharavela was overwhelmed with joy and jubilation in his third regnal year. Kharavela was proficient in all arts of music and dance. He organised various performances where dance and music, both vocal and instrumental, took place. He also arranged ceremonials and social gatherings in which feast and merrymaking etc. for the entertainment of his subjects.

Southern campaign

                                      In the fourth regnal year, the war-drum of Kalinga was heard again. Kharavela mobilised his army and marched towards the Deccan again. The territory of the Rathikas and Bhojakas lying respectively to the south and north of Nasik region were conquered. The Rathikas and Bhojakas paid homage and booty to Kharavela.

Extension of canal from the Tansulia to Kalinganagari

                                                                                      The role of Kharavela as a benevolent king is reflected in the fifth year of his reign. In this year, Kharavela extended the canal from the Tansulia road up to Kalinganagari. This canal was excavated 300 or 103 years before by king Nanda (a Nanda king) for the purpose of irrigation.

Remittance of taxes 

                             In the sixth year of his reign, Kharavela did not undertake any war campaign rather he devoted himself to the welfare activities of his subjects. He remitted taxes and benevolences both in urban and rural area of his kingdom. This clearly shows that the treasury of Kharavela was overflowed with wealth. As a benevolent ruler, he took up this task of remitting taxes to his beloved subjects to win their hearts.

Attainment of fatherhood

                                          In the seventh year of his rule, Kharavela attained fatherhood. His chief queen known by the name 'the queen of Vajiraghara' gave birth to a son.

Expedition to the north

                                    In the eighth year of his reign, Kharavela led an expedition to the north and attacked the city of Rajagriha and devastated Gorathagiri which was situated on the Barbara hill of the Gaya district. His triumph at Rajagriha created terror among the yavanas who were then in occupation of Mathura. After their success in that region, they had a plan to attack Magadha, Hearing the exploits of Kharavela, the yavana king fled away from Mathura. The yavana ruler, whose name is read doubtfully as 'Dimita' or 'Dimata' might be Demitrius or Minandar as opined by several scholars. He had collected large booty from that war campaign of north

.

Establishment of Victory of Palace

                                               In the ninth year of his rule, he built the 'Great Victory Palace(Mahavijaya Prasadam) by spending 38 lakhs of coins in order to commemorate his victory in the northern campaign. He had also distributed the wealth gained from exploits among the Brahmins and Arhats of his empire.

Northern Indian campaign

                                                  In the tenth year, Kharavela, who was the embodiment of the principles of politics, diplomacy and peace directed the army towards North India for conquest but the result was obscure.

Expedition against southern confederacy

                                                 In the eleventh year, he defeated a confederacy of southern powers. The confederacy of the southern powers consisted of Cholas, Pandyas, Satpuriyas, keralaputras and Tamraparnis. He secured large amount of jewels, pearls and precious stones as a symbol of allegiance.

Campaign against Bruhaspati Mitra

                                                          In the twelfth regnal year, Kharavela led campaign against Bruhaspati Mitra, the Sunga ruler of Magadha with a vast army. He inflicted a crushing defeat on the Magadhan king and also on the ruler of Anga. The people of Magadha and Anga bowed to Kharavela in awe and respect. By defeating Bruhaspati Mitra, he secured the Kalinga Jina (the venerated image of Kalinga ) as trophy of his victory which was taken 300 or 103 years before by a Nanda king most probably Mahapadmananda. He also brought a vast treasure of wealth from Anga and Magadha. Really Kharavela avenged the defeat of the Kalingans at the hand of the Nanda King who had taken away the Jina image from Kalinga. The scene of Bahasatimita's surrendering at the feet of Kharavela is found in the Ranigumpha of Udayagiri. A scene from the Manchapuri cave shows the installation of Kalinga Jina by Kharavela. After his victory over the Magadhan king, Kharavela’s suzerainty was acknowledged by the Naga king of Central India and the Pandya king of South India. The Naga king sent to him jewels, elephants, horses and deer as presents. The pandyan king also sent jewels to him as a mark of loyality.

Construction of caves

                                     In the thirteenth year of his reign, Kharavela probably gave up military activities and turned his attention towards religious pursuits. He built 117 (1700 ? not possible) caves at Kumari Parvata (Udayagiri) for Jaina monks, monks of other religion, sheers and Arhats. This was his noble service rendered to the Jaina and other monks. He revived the art and architecture of ancient Kalinga (Mukhiya Kala) which was going to be extinguished. In different caves of Udaygiri and Khandagiri the images of Jaina Tirthankaras, trees, creepers, images of royal servants were built by him in that year.

Time of his rule

                          The date of Kharavela is a highly controversial one. We may rely upon some clues in the Hatigumpha inscription to determine the date of Kharavela. This inscription says that in the twelfth year of his reign, Kharavela defeated the Magadhan king Bahasati Mita (Bruhaspati Mitra). Mitra was being suffixed by the rulers of the Sunga dynasty which came to power in Magadha in 187 B.C. on the break-up of the Mauryan empire and continued to rule upto 40-30 B.C. The first ruler of this dynasty was Pushya Mitra who ruled from187 B.C. to 151 B.C. Some scholars identify Pushya Mitra with Bruhaspati Mitra without proper justification. Pushya Mitra was succeeded by his son Agni Mitra, the hero of Kalidas's drama, Malavikagnimitram. After Agri Mitra the Sungas became weak. It is probable that Kharavela defeated a later Sunga king, bearing the name Bruhaspati Mitra. Therefore, his invasion of Magadha could have taken place sometimes after 151 B.C. and before 40 B.C. Another clue of Kharavela's date is the statement in the Hatigumpha inscription that in the fifth year of his reign Kharavela renovated a canal which had been dug by a Nanda ~ (Nanda Raja) 103 or 300 years (Ti-basa-sata) before. Some scholars identify the Nanda Raja with Mahapadrnananda, the powerful founder-king of the Nanda dynasty of Magadha and read Ti-basasata as there hundred years. 

                                                        In this line of fixation, we have to know accurately the year of the commencement of Mahapadmananda's reign. Taking 345 B.C. as the year of digging of canal by Mahapadmananda, N. K. Sahu fixes 40 B.C. as the year of Kharavela's coronation. Relying upon the Puranic sources, according to which Nandas ruled for one hundred years, and taking 424 B.C. as the starting point of Nanda rule and reading Ti-basa- Ita as 300 years, Kedarnath Mahapatra fixes 100 B.C. as the your of Kharavela's coronation. 

                                                       Some palaeographists are of the opinion that the Hatigumpha inscription should be assigned to the first century B.C. On the other hand, K.C. Panigrahi holds a different view. He accepts B.M. Barua’s Identification of Nanda Raja with Asoka on two grounds. First, there was no Nanda rule in Odisha, as Asoka was the first king of Magadha to conquer Kalinga according to his statement in Rock Edict XIII. Secondly, as Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka's grand father, has been called Nandanvaya (an offspring of Nanda family), the description of Asoka as Nanda Raja should not appear absurd. Panigrahi also reads Ti-basa-sata as 103 years and taking 261 B.C. as the year of conquest of Kalinga by Asoka (after which the canal was dug), he fixes the coronation of Kharavela at 159 B.C. Panigrahi identifies Bruhaspati Mitra as a later Mauryan king, named Bruhaspati who is mentioned in Divyavadana. The Hatigumpha inscription also mentions Satavahan king Satakarni as Kharavela's contemporary. Satakarni is identified as Satakarni-l who belonged to second or first century B.C.. From the above discussion we may conclude that Kharavela could not be earlier than second century B.C. and later than first century B.C. Most probably he belonged to first century B.C. However, N. K. Sahu has fixed up the chronology of Kharavela's reign, as follows: (1)Establishment of Chedi rule in Kalinga -73 B.C.,(2) Birth of Kharavela-64 B.C,(3) Coronation-40 B.C., (4) Rule as Heir-apparent- 49-40 B.C.

Conclusion

                      Thus, Kharavela was undoubtedly a great conqueror and empire builder in the early phase of the Indian history. He can be compared with Mahapadmananda, Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka and Samudragupta in this respect. He was a great military genius. He possessed a vast army, composed of impressive elephant force, cavalry, infantry and chariots. His political sway extended in the north as far as Mathura and, in the south, as far as the Pandya kingdom. Conquests, however, impressive are ephemeral. Kharavela's greatness in history rests on safer and much more abiding grounds than mere conquests. Kharavela is remembered as a 'protagonist and a patron of Jainism.

Administration of Ashoka

Administration of Ashoka, & Ashoka’s Edicts:

 Ashoka was the third ruler of the illustrious Maurya dynasty and was one of the most powerful kings of the Indian subcontinent in ancient times. His reign between 273 BC and 232 B.C. was one of the most prosperous periods in the history of India. Ashoka’s empire consisted most of India, South Asia and beyond, stretching from present day Afghanistan and parts of Persia in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and Mysore in the south. Buddhist literature document Ashoka as a cruel and ruthless monarch who underwent a change of heart after experiencing a particularly gruesome war, the Battle of Kalinga. After the war, he embraced Buddhism and dedicated his life towards dissemination of the tenets of the religion. He became a benevolent king, driving his administration to make a just and bountiful environment for his subjects. Owing to his benevolent nature as a ruler, he was given the title ‘Devanampriya Priyadarshi’. Ashoka and his glorious rule is associated with one of the most prosperous time in the history of India and as a tribute to his non-partisan philosophies, the Dharma Chakra adorning the Ashok stambh has been made a part of the Indian National Flag. The emblem of the Republic of India has been adapted from the Lion Capital of Ashoka.

Early Life

Ashoka was born to Mauryan King Bindusara and his queen Devi Dharma in 304 B.C. He was the grandson of the great Chandragupta Maurya, the founder emperor of the Maurya Dynasty. Dharma (alternatively known as Subhadrangi or Janapadkalyani) was the daughter of a Brahmin priest from the kindom of Champa, and was assigned relatively low position in the royal household owing to politics therein. By virtue of his mother’s position, Ashoka also received a low position among the princes. He had only one younger sibling, Vithashoka, but, several elder half-brothers. Right from his childhood days Ashoka showed great promise in the field of weaponry skills as well as academics. Ashoka’s father Bindusara, impressed with his skill and knowledge, appointed him as the Governer of Avanti. Here he met and married Devi, the daughter of a tradesman from Vidisha. Ashoka and Devi had two children, son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra. 

                                           A qinto an excellent warrior general and an astute statesman. His command on the Mauryan army started growing day by day. Ashoka’s elder brothers became jealous of him and they assumed him being favoured by King Bindusara as his successor to the throne. King Bindusara’s eldest son Sushima convinced his father to send Ashoka far away from the capital city of Pataliputra to Takshashila province. The excuse given was to subdue a revolt by the citizens of Takshashila. However, the moment Ashoka reached the province, the militias welcomed him with open arms and the uprising came to an end without any fight. This particular success of Asoka made his elder brothers, especially Susima, more insecure.

Accession to the Throne

                                      Susima started inciting Bindusara against Ashoka, who was then sent into exile by the emperor. Ashoka went to Kalinga, where he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki. He fell in love with her and later, made Kaurwaki his second or third wife. Soon, the province of Ujjain started witnessing a violent uprising. Emperor Bindusara called back Ashoka from exile and sent him to Ujjain. The prince was injured in the ensuing battle and was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. It was in Ujjain that Asoka first came to know about the life and teachings of Buddha.

                                       In the following year, Bindusura became seriously ill and was literally on his deathbed. Sushima was nominated successor by the king but his autocratic nature made him unfavourable among the ministers. A group of ministers, led by Radhagupta, called upon Ashoka to assume the crown. Following Bindusara’s death in 272 B.C., Ashoka attacked Pataliputra, defeated and killed all his brothers, including Sushima. Among all his brothers he only spared his younger brother Vithashoka. His coronation took place four years after his ascent to throne. Buddhist literatures describe Ashoka as a cruel, ruthless and bad-tempered ruler. He was named ‘Chanda’ Ashoka meaning Ashoka the Terrible, due to his disposition at that time. He was attributed with building Ashoka’s Hell, a torture chamber manned by an executioner to punish offenders. 

After he became the empperor, Ashoka launched brutal assaults to expand his empire, which lasted for around eight years. Although the Maurya Empire that he inherited was quite sizable, he expanded the borders exponentially. His kingdom stretched from Iran-Afghanistan borders in the West to Burma in the east. He annexed the whole of Southern India except Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka). The only kingdom outside his grasp was Kalinga which is the modern day Orissa.

The Battle of Kalinga and Submission to Buddhism

                                                         Ashoka launched an assault to conquer Kalinga during 265 B.C. and the battle of Kalinga became a turning point in his life. Ashoka personally led the conquest and secured victory. On his orders, the whole of province was plundered, cities were destroyed and thousands of people were killed. 

                                             The morning after the victory he went out to survey the states of things and encountered nothing except burnt houses and scattered corpses. Having brought face to face with the consequences of war, for the first time he felt overwhelmed with the brutality of his actions. He saw flashes of the destruction that his conquest had wrought even after returning to Pataliputra. He experienced an utter crisis of faith during this period and sought penance for his past deeds. He vowed never to practice violence again and devoted himself completely to Buddhism. He followed the directives of Brahmin Buddhist gurus Radhaswami and Manjushri and started propagating Buddhist principles throughout his kingdom. Thus Chandashoka morphed into Dharmashoka or the pious Ashoka.

Administration of Ashoka

                                            The administration of Ashoka after his spiritual transformation was focused solely on the well-being of his subjects. The emperor was at the helm of the administration following the established model put forward by Mauryan Kings before Ashoka. He was closely assisted in his administrative duties by his younger brother, Vithashoka and a group of trusted ministers, whom Ashoka consulted before adopting any new administrative policy. The most important members of this advisory council included the Yuvaraj (Crown Prince), the Mahamantri (Prime Minister), the Senapati (general), and the Purohita (priest). Asoka’s reign saw introduction of a large number of benevolent policies as compared to his predecessors. He adopted a paternalistic view on administration and proclaimed "All men are my Children", as evident from the Kalinga edict. He also expressed his indebtedness to his subjects for bestowing with their love and respect, and that he considered it his duty to serve for their greater good. 

                                                 His kingdom was divided into Pradesha or provinces which were subdivided into Vishyas or subdivisions and Janapadas, which were further subdivided into villages.The five chief provinces under Ashoka’s reign were the Uttarapatha(Northern Province) with its capital at Taxila; Avantiratha (western province) with its headquarters at Ujjain; Prachyapatha (eastern province) with its centre at Toshali and the Dakshinapatha (southern province) with its capital as Suvarnagiri. The central province, Magadha with its capital at Pataliputra was the administrative centre of the empire.  Each province was granted partial autonomy at the hand of a crown prince who was responsible for controlling the overall law enforcement, but the emperor himself retained much of the financial and administrative controls. These provincial heads were altered from time to time to prevent any one of them exerting power over a long period of time. He appointed several Pativedakas or reporters, who would report to him the general and public affairs, leading the king to take necessary steps.

                                                     Although Ashoka built his empire on the principles of non-violence, he followed the instructions outlined in the Arthashastra for the characters of the Perfect King. He introduced legal reforms like Danda Samahara and Vyavahara Samahara, clearly pointing out to his subjects the way of life that is to be led by them. The overall judicial and administration were overseen by Amatyas or civil servants whose functions were clearly delineated by the Emperor. The Akshapataladhyaksha was in charge of currency and accounts of the entire administration. The Akaradhyaksha was in-charge of mining and other metallurgical endeavours. The Sulkadhyaksa was in charge of collecting the taxes. The Panyadhyaksha was controller of commerce. The Sitadhyaksha was in charge of agriculture. The emperor employed a network of spies who offered him tactical advantages in diplomatic matters. The administration conducted regular census along with other information as caste and occupation.

Religious Policy: Ashoka’s Dhamma

                                                               Ashoka made Buddhism the state religion around 260 B.C. He was perhaps the first emperor in history of India who tried to establish a Buddhist polity by implementing the Dasa Raja Dharma or the ten precepts outlined by Lord Buddha himself as the duty of a perfect ruler. They are enumerated as:

1.To be liberal and avoid selfishness

2. To maintain a high moral character

3. To be prepared to sacrifice one's own pleasure for the well-being of the subjects

4. To be honest and maintain absolute integrity

5. To be kind and gentle

6. To lead a simple life for the subjects to emulate

7.  To be free from hatred of any kind

8. To exercise non-violence

9.  To practice patience

10. To respect public opinion to promote peace and harmony

Based on these 10 principles preached by Lord Buddha, Ashoka dictated the practice of Dharma that became the backbone of his philanthropic and tolerant administration. Dharma was neither a new religion nor a new political philosophy. It was a way of life, outlined in a code of conduct and a set of principles that he encouraged his subjects to adopt to lead a peaceful and prosperous life. He undertook the propagation of these philosophies through publication of 14 edicts that he spread out throughout his empire.

Ashoka’s Edicts:

1. No living being were to be slaughtered or sacrificed.

2. Medical care for human as well as animals throughout his Empire

3. Monks to tour the empire every five years teaching the principles of dharma to the common people.

4. One should always respect one’s parents, priests and monks

5. Prisoners to be treated humanely

6. He encouraged his subjects to report to him their concerns regarding the welfare of the administration at all times no matter where he is or what he is doing.

7. He welcomed all religions as they desire self-control and purity of heart.

8. He encouraged his subjects to give to monks, Brahmans and to the needy.

9. Reverence for the dharma and a proper attitude towards teachers was considered better than marriage or other worldly celebrations, by the Emperor.

10. Emperor surmised that glory and fame count for nothing if people do not respect the dharma.

11. He considered giving the dharma to others is the best gift anyone can have.

12. Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is good.

13. Ashoka preached that conquest by the dhamma is superior to conquest by force but if conquest by force is carried out, it should be 'forbearance and light punishment'.

14. The 14 edicts were written so that people might act in accordance with them.

He got these 14 edicts engraved in stone pillars and slabs and had them placed at strategic places around his kingdom.

Role in Dissemination of Buddhism

Throughout his life, 'Asoka the Great' followed the policy of non-violence or ahimsa. Even the slaughter or mutilation of animals was abolished in his kingdom. He promoted the concept of vegetarianism. The caste system ceased to exist in his eyes and he treated all his subjects as equals. At the same time, each and every person was given the rights to freedom, tolerance, and equality. 

The third council of Buddhism was held under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka. He also supported the Vibhajjavada sub-school of the Sthaviravada sect, now known as the Pali Theravada. 

                                                        He sent missionaries to far of places to propagate the ideals of Buddhism and inspire people to live by the teachings of Lord Buddha. He even engaged members of the royal family, including his son and daughter, Mahendra and Sanghamitra, to carry out duties of Buddhist missionaries. His missionaries went to the below mentioned places - Seleucid Empire (Middle Asia), Egypt, Macedonia, Cyrene (Libya), and Epirus (Greece and Albania). He also sent dignitaries all over his empire to propagate his ideals of Dhamma based on Buddhist philosophy. Some of these are listed as follows:

• Kashmir - Gandhara Majjhantika
• Mahisamandala (Mysore) - Mahadeva
• Vanavasi (Tamil Nadu) - Rakkhita
• Aparantaka (Gujarat and Sindh) - Yona Dhammarakkhita
• Maharattha (Maharashtra) - Mahadhammarakkhita
• "Country of the Yona" (Bactria/ Seleucid Empire) - Maharakkhita
• Himavanta (Nepal) - Majjhima
• Suvannabhumi (Thailand/ Myanmar) - Sona and Uttara
• Lankadipa (Sri Lanka) - Mahamahinda 

Demise

After ruling over the Indian subcontinent for a period of approximately 40 years, the Great Emperor Asoka left for the holy abode in 232 BC. After his death, his empire lasted just fifty more years.

Ashoka’s Legacy

Buddhist Emperor Asoka built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. One of his stupas, the Great Sanchi Stupa, has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNECSO. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath has a four-lion capital, which was later adopted as the national emblem of the modern Indian republic.

KALINGA WAR: Causes and results

KALINGA WAR: Causes and results

Introduction 

The Kalinga War of 261 B.C. is considered as the sheet anchor of Odishan history. With it 

begins the dated history of Orissa. The Mauryan influence over Kalinga not only added a new feather in the already crowned Magadhan imperialism, but it also brought about a radical change in the existing polity of the land. Though the Nandas had established their authority over Kalinga, they had probably altered the existing administrative set up of Kalinga. After Kalinga war , an elaborate system of administration was arranged by Ashoka for this newly conquered province. 

Kalinga War 

The Kalinga war was a milestone in the splendid career of Asoka. It took place in 261 B.C. eight years after the coronation of Asoka. A detailed account of this war is known from Rock Edict XIII found at Shahbazgarh in Pakistan. Kainga was under the suzerainty of Magadha till Dhana Nanda. Kalinga probably slipped away from the fold of Magadhan imperialism when Kautilya and Chandragupta Maurya revolted against the Nandas around 322-321 B.C.Chandragupta Maurya had never attempted to annex Kalinga during his life time. Bindusara had also not fought with the people of Kalinga. So, it was a historic necessity on the part of Asoka to conquer Kalinga. 

Causes of the Kalinga war 

The following factors were responsible for the outbreak of the Kalinga war in 261 B.C. 

Powerful neighbour
The Magadhan Empire during Asoka had surrounded Kalinga in the north, west and south. Tile existence of Kalinga as a powerful neighbour on the border of Magadha was definitely a threat to the power and potentiality of the latter. Thus, Kalinga posed a menace to the grand Magadhan empire. Before Kalinga rose to that extent, Asoka wanted to defeat and capture it.

Imperialistic design of Ashoka 

Asoka's invasion of Kalinga in 261 B.C. appears to have been actuated by his imperialistic designs. By the time of Asoka's accession the Magadhan Empire had spread over most parts of India. From the Himalayas in the north to Mysore in the sourth and from the Kabul valley in the north-west to Bengal in the east, the whole territory was under the sovereignty of Ashoka.An independent kingdom of Kalinga, not very far from the centre of gravity of the Magadhan empire, was intolerable for a warlike- king like Chandasoka or Black Asoka . 

Economic prosperity of Kalinga 

There were certain economic factors which had created rivalry between Kalinga and Magadha. Kalinga monopolised the oversea trade in the Indian ocean and gained vast wealth. Her wealth also increased from inland trade. Through the Mauryas had foreign relation with the contemporary Hellenistic powers, they had not maintained commercial relation with them. It may also be pointed out that the Mauryas by that time had not built up a naval power and the Navadhyaksha (Superintendent of Shiping) mentioned by Kautilya in his Arthasastra was in charge of policing the rivers, lakes and seashores rather than building ships for maritime trades. So, the economic prosperity of Kalinga became an eye-sore for Magadha. 

Commercial factor 

In trade and commerce, Kalinga was a great competitor of Magadha. Important trade-routes from the Gangetic valley to the Deccan and further south passed through Kalinga facilitating her trade and commerce. Though, Magadha had foreign relation and huge internal resources, it suffered from a commercial crisis due to the lack of trade routes. The existence of flourishing Kalinga with her trade and commerce was adversely affecting the economy of the Mauryan empire. 

Stealing of Asoka's jewels by the Nagas 

According to the description of Lama Taranath, a Tibetan author, the Nagas stole away the jewels of Asoka. So, the emperor became angry and conquered their territory. These Nagas were identified with the seafaring people of Kalinga. In order to take revenge, Asoka invaded Kalinga. 

Legend of Karuvaki 

A strange story regarding the cause of Kalinga war prevails among the fisherman community of the eastern coast of Odisha. According to this, Asoka invaded Kalinga being infatuated by the beauty of Karuvaki, the daughter of a fisherman and the fiancee of the crown prince of Kalinga. Though this fact appears absurd, but it cannot be rejected outright because from the Queen'sEdict, it is known that Asoka had a queen named Karuvaki who was the mother of Tivara, a son of Ashoka.

Religious factor 

Religion was another potential factor for Asoka's invasion of Kalinga. Before Kalinga 

War, Asoka was a devout Saiva. Though, it is difficult to ascertain what was the prevalent form of religion in Kalinga, with tolerable degree of certainty, it can be stated that Buddhism and not Brahminism (Saivism) was prevailing in Kalinga. Asoka might have decided to wage a holy war against Kalinga to teach the Buddhists a lesson. Though, nothing concrete is available to the historians regarding the nature of polity in Kalinga during Asoka's invasion· and also the state of religion in this land, it appears that Brahmanism, as a state religion, did not prevail here. However, this is a controversial issue. 

The nature of the Kalinga War 

The much anticipated Kalinga War took place in 261 B.C. which is known from Meghasthenes account that Magadhan army during Chandragupta Maurya, consisted of 6,00,000 men., Definitely it would have increased during Asoka. So, with that grand army Asoka invaded Kalinga from north, west and south. However, the Kalingans resisted the attack vehemently. The war took place on the bank of the river Daya near Dhauli. The Rock Edict XIII mentions the horror of the Kalinga war. 

Results of the Kalinga War 

The Kalinga war had far reaching results which made lasting impact on mankind. The results can be discussed as follows: 

Loss of man and material 

Each and every war in history almost results in the loss of man and money. There was huge loss of man and material in the Kalinga war. In this war 150,000 soldiers from the side of Kalinga were taken as prisoners by Asoka and 100,000 were slain and many others got died out of injuries and epidemic after the war. The war brought miseries not only to those who took to arms but also to a large number of civil population. 

Annexation of Kalinga 

With the victory of Asoka in the Kalinga war, Kalinga was annexed to Magadhan empire and it constituted its fifth province. The other four provinces of the empire were Prachya, Uttarapatha, Avanti and Dakshinapatha having their capitals at Magadha, Takshasila, Ujjaini and Suvarnagiri respectively. Tosali was the capital of Kalinga and the centre of political activities for the Mauryan administration in Kalinga. Two separate Kalinga edicts of Asoka found at Dhauli and Jaugarh enumerate the pattern of Mauryan administration for the province of kalinga. 

Change from Chandasoka to Dharmasoka

The horror of the Kalinga war changed the mind of Asoka. In Rock Edict XIII, Asoka expresses- "In conquering indeed an unconquered country (Kalinga), the slaying, death, deporting that occur there are considered extremely painful and serious by the Devanampiya" This war brought about a great transformation in the heart of Asoka. He was changed from Chandasoka to Dharmasoka with a vow to conquer mankind by conquering the heart of the people and not-to win over them by war. 

Acceptance of Buddhism after Kalinga war 

The Kalinga War had brought deep feeling or remorse in the mind of Asoka. It drew himself close towards Buddhism. After Kalinga War, he was converted to Buddhism by Upagupta, a Buddhist monk or Nigrodha, the seven year old son of Asoka's elder brother Sumana whom he had killed or Mogaliputtatissa,the president of the Third Buddhist Council. Whatever the fact might be, Asoka accepted Buddhism after the Kalinga war. 

Spread of Buddhism in India and outside countries 

The transformation of Asoka helped in the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism, which was confined to the middle of the Gangetic Valley in Pre-Asokan period, suddenly became an all-India religion within a decade of his conversion. Not only in India, Buddhism also spread to different parts of the world. He sent Mahendra and Sanghamitra, his son and daughter respectively to Ceylon, Sana and Uttara to Suvarnabhumi (Burma) and further, he maintained friendly relation with Kings of Greece, Syria, Egypt, Macedonia and Cryne by sending missions of peace. Thus, Asoka, being converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga War, was instrumental for the spread of Buddhism from Greece to Burma and from the Himalayas to the Ceylon. 

Paternal attitude towards his subjects 

Asoka adopted a paternalistic attitude towards his subjects after the Kalinga War. In separate Kalinga Edicts (Dhauli and Jaugad) Asoka expresses himself as such . "All men are my children and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain welfare and happiness both in this 

world and the next, the same I do desire for all men...” This attitude made him a completely benevolent ruler.

Growth of art, architecture and literature 

An important aspect of the Kalinga War was that it led to the growth of art, architecture and literature unprecedented in the land. Engravement in the edicts, erection of stupas etc. made the Mauryan art unique in the annals of ancient Indian history. The Pali language which Asoka used in his edicts brought cultural unification of India popular among his subjects 

Appointment of Viceroy and Ministers 

As the Kalingans had exhibited their violent protest against the Mouryan authority in the Kalinga war, Asoka wanted to give them a healing touch by providing an administrator tinged with mercy and liberalism. Although, he appointed a prince of royal blood as Viceroy to look after the administration of Kalinga, he also devoted his heart and soul to the smooth running of 

administration in Kalinga. As per the administration gathered from separate RE I found from Dhauli, Asoka appointed a body of ministers to aid and advise the Kumara Viceroy of Kalinga and to check balance his administrative powers. 

Appointment of Dharma Mahamatras 

In other parts of his empire, Asoka had given authority to the Viceroys to appointed Dharma Mahamatras on triennial tours inside the empire to impart religious instruction to the people. In case of Kalinga, however, the Viceroy had no such authority. Asoka took keen interest in appointing the Dharma Mahamatras specially for Kalinga. This shows that emperor Asoka had his personal involvernent in the administration of Kalinga even though he had appointed Viceroy to look after the administration of Kalinga. 

Well organised bureaucracy 

Asoka appointed a well organised bureaucracy to assist the viceroy of Kalinga. The important officers during Asoka's time were the Mahamatras, Rajukas, Yuktas, Vachabhumikas,Antamahamatras,,Ithijakamahamatras Dharma Mahamatras etc. Antamahamatras were the ministers of the border provinces and the Mahamatras of Tosali and Samapa probably belonged to this cateogry. For Kalinga, Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed by Asoka personally. They were employed to look after the spiritual and moral upliftment of people of this land. As the Rajukas were in charge of welfare of the Janapadas and were competent enough with absolute power in matters of reward and punishment, they might have played a dominant role in the administration of Kalinga.
Conclusion

Thus, the Kalinga war was a land mark in the history of ancient Odisha. It left some permanent legacies. The war gave to this land with its predominant aboriginal and primitive population a civilized administration which could achieve its moral and social uplift by its constant solicitude and work for the welfare of the people. Buddhism became a world religion after the war. Ashoka’s rule also resulted in the introduction of Mauryan art and architecture in Odisha.