Mahajanapadas
(Monarchies and Republics) during the Post Vedic Period
ormation of States
The tribal political organisation
of the Rig Vedic phase gave way to the rise of territorial state towards the
end of the Vedic period. But the territorial idea was
gradually strengthened in the sixth century B.C. with the rise of large state
with towns as their seats of power. Permanent settlement in a
particular area gave a geographical identity to a tribe or a group of tribes
and subsequently this identity was given concrete shape in the possession of
the area, which was generally named after the tribe. To maintain this possession
required political organization, either as a republic or a monarchy.
From the sixth century B.C.
onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Western
Bihar, as evidenced from excavations at Raj ghat and Chirand, led to the
formation of large territorial states which were better equipped militarily and
in which warrior class played the main role.
New agricultural tools and
implements enabled the peasants to produce a good amount of surplus which not
only met the needs of the ruling class but also supported numerous towns. Towns
came into existence as centres of industry and trade. Some such as Shravasti,
Champa, Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi, Kashi and Pataliputra were of substantial
importance to the economy of the Ganges plains.
Others
such as Vaishali, Ujjain, Taxila and the port of Bharukachchha (Broach) had a
wider economic reach. A passage from Panini, makes it clear that the people
owed their allegiance to the Janapada (territory) to which they belonged and
not to the Jana or the tribe to which they belonged.
The Mahajanapadas (Monarchies
and Republics):
In the post-Vedic period, the
entire northern territory mostly situated north of the Vindhyas and extending
from the North-West frontier to Bihar was divided into sixteen states called
Sodasha Mahajanapadas. These Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or
republican in character.
Whereas the monarchies were
concentrated in the Gangetic Plains, the republics were ranged round the northern
periphery of these kingdoms-in the foothills of the Himalayas and just south of
these, and in north-western India in modern Punjab.
The Buddhist literature,
particularly the Anguttara Nikaya lists the sixteen mahajanapadas given as –
Gandhara, Kamboja, Assaka, Vatsa, Avanti, Surasena, Chedi, Malla, Kuru,
Panchala, Matsya, Vajji, Anga, Kosala and Magadha.
Monarchies:
1. Kashi:
With its capital as Banaras,
Kashi was at first the most powerful among the sixteen states and perhaps
played an important part in the subversion of the Videhan monarchy. Eventually
it had to submit to the power of Kosala and later annexed by Ajatasatru to
Magadha.
2. Kosala:
It embraced the area occupied by
eastern Uttar Pradesh and has its capital at Shravasti, which is identical with
Sahet – Mahet in the borders of Gonda and Bahraich districts in Uttar Pradesh.
Kosala was bounded on the west by the river Gomati, on the south by the Sarpika
or Syandika (Sai), on the east by the Sadanira (Gandak) which separated it from
Videha and on the north by the Nepal hills.
Ayodhya, Saketa and Shravasti
were three important Kosalan cities. Prasenjit, the Kosalan king was the
contemporary of king Bimbisara and king Ajatasatru of Magadha. Prasenjit’s
sister was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha, and Kashi was given to her
as dowry. However, a dispute with Ajatasatru, son of Bimbisara through another
wife, soon led to discord. Ajatasatru put his father to death whose wife,
sister of Prasenjit, died due to grief. Prasenjit, in retaliation, confiscated
Kasi.
A war broke out with varying results in favour of both sides. However, the
conflict finally ended with reconciliation. Prasenjit’s daughter Vajjira was
married to Ajatasatru and Kashi was given as dowry to the bride. Though
Prasenjit did not embrace Buddhism, one of the Bharhut sculptures highlights
cordiality between Prasenjit and Buddha. Finally it was annexed by Magadha
during Ajatasatru’s reign after the death of Prasenjit.
3. Anga:
Anga in the east of Magadha
roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Monghyr and Bagalpur. Its
capital Champa, situated on the bank of the river of the same name, was noted
for its wealth and commerce. It was annexed to Magadha in the time of
Bimbisara.
4. Magadha:
Between Anga and Vatsa there lay
the kingdom of Magadha, corresponding to modern Patna and Gaya districts,
bounded on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the
Vindhya outcrop and on the east by the river Champa. Rajagriha or Girivraja,
rendered impregnable by a perimeter of five hills, was the Magadhan capital.
The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha. However, Magadha came
into prominence under Bimbisasra and Ajatsatru.
5. Vatsa:
The Vatsa country had a
monarchical form of government. Its capital was Kausambi (identified with the
village of Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad. Kausambi, a very prosperous city was
the most important entre pot of goods and passengers from the south and the
west. Udayana, the ruler of this country in the sixth century B.C. had to
struggle against king Ajatasatru of Magadha and king Pradyota of Avanti.
Udayana entered into a
matrimonial alliance with the king of Magadha. The ruler of Avanti invaded
Kausambi and as he was unsuccessful, he had to marry his daughter to Udayana.
To begin with, Udayana was opposed to Ruddhism, but later on he became a
follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. Later, during the
reign of Palaka, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.
6. Avanti:
The state of Avanti roughly
corresponded to modern Malwa. The river Vetravati divided Avanti into north and
south. Terrirorially, it was a big kingdom and its capital was Ujjayini or
modern Ujjain. The ruler of Avanti in the time of Buddha was Chanda Pradyota.
He was a contemporary of Udayana of Kausambi. Although he was given the
nickname of Chanda on account of his ferocity, he became a convert to Buddhism.
Avanti became a very important
centre of Buddhism. The kingdom of Avanti was finally annexed to Magadhan
Empire by Sishunaga.
7. Gandhara:
The state of Gandhara roughly
corresponded to modern Kashmir and extended upto the Kabul valley. Its capital
was Taxila which was a famous seat of learning where scholars came from all
over the world. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Gandhara King
Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in Magadha and went on foot to see the
Buddha. Later it formed the twentieth province of the Achaemenid Empire
(Persian) according to the Greek historian, Herodotus.
8. Kamboja:
It was the country adjoining
Gandhara in the extreme North-West with Dwarka as its capital. A little before
530 B.C. Cyrus, the Achaemenid emperor of Persia, crossed the Hindukush and
received tributes from the people of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-Indus
area. During Kautilya’s time, Kamboja transformed from a monarchy to a
republic.
9. Matsya:
The Matsyas were to the south of
the Kurus and west of the Yamuna. The Matsya country corresponded roughly to
the former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan.
10. Kurus:
The Kuru country roughly
corresponded to the modern Delhi and the adjoining doab region. It was the most
important kingdom of the later Vedic period but during the sixth century B.C.
the Kurus did not occupy the same position. They set up their capital at
Hastinapur situated in the district of Merrut.
11. Panchala:
The Panchala kingdom, which
covered the modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun and Farukhabad lost its
prominent position as in the Vedic period. Their capital was at Kampilla,
perhaps modern Kampil in Farrukhabad district.
12 & 13 Surasena and Chedi:
The Surasena kingdom was south of
the Matsyas with its capital at Mathura. The .kingdom of the Chedis
corresponded roughly to the eastern parts of Bundelkhand and adjoining areas,
and their king lists occur in the Jatakas.
Republics:
14. Vajjis:
The Vajji territory lay north of
the Ganga and stretched as far as the Nepal hills. Its western limit was the
river Sadanira (Gandak), which separated it from the Malla and Kosalan cities.
In the east it extended up to the forests on the banks of the river Koshi and
Mahananda. The Vajji state is said to have been a confederation of eight clans
(atthakula), of whom the Videhans, the Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas and the
Vrijjis proper were the most important.
In all likelihood the Vajji
confederation was organised after the decline and fall of the Videhan monarchy
and was a republican state in the time of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The most
powerful of them were the Lichchhavis with their capital at Vaishali which is
identical with the village of Basarh in the district of Vaishali.
15. Mallas:
The territory of the Mallas, a
republican, was divided into two parts, each having its own capital. The two
capital cities were Kushinara (identified with Kasia in the Gorakhpur
district), and Pava (modern Padrauna). The importance of these two cities is
very great in the history of Buddhism as Buddha took his last meals and was
taken ill at Pava, and at Kusinara, he died.
16. Assaka:
The kingdom of Assaka (Asmaka)
was situated nearthe river Godavari in the South, and it became commercially
important in course of time. Its capital was Patlia or Potna. All the 16
Mahajanapadas did not play the same role in contemporary politics, Kashi, which
was most important at first, lost its position to Kosla and Magadha. These two
kingdoms vied with each other for control of the Ganga basin, which, owing to
the riverine commercial traffic, had certain clear strategic and economic
advantages.
In the sixth century B.C. only 4
states-Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived. The political history of
India from the sixth century B.C. onwards is the history of struggles between
these states for supremacy. Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the
most powerful and succeeded in founding an empire.
Rise of Urban Centres:
Archaeologically, the sixth
century B.C. marks the beginning of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) phase,
which was characterised by a glossy, shining type of pottery. This phase also
saw the use of iron implements and the beginning of metallic money.
After Harappan towns, the NBP
phase marked the beginning of the second phase of urbanisation in India with
the emergence of towns in the Middle Gangetic basin like Kausambi, Sravasti, Ayodhya,
Rajgir, Pataliputra, Champa, etc.
The period produced texts dealing with measurement (Sulvasutras), which
presupposes writing. The peasants had to pay one-sixth of their produce as tax,
which was collected directly by royal agents.
Rice was the staple cereal. Thus,
the iron-ploughshare-based food producing economy provided subsistence not
only to direct producers but also, to many others. This made possible
collection of taxes and maintenance of armies on a long term basis, and created
conditions in which large territorial States could be formed and sustained.
Another factor that helped the
process was the use of coins. Although literary evidences regarding the use of
coins in the form of Nishka or Satamana are found, the use of coins became
regular during the period of Buddha. The first coins in India, called
punchmarked coins, came at this time. Towards the end of this period a script
was also developed.
Trade Routes:
Pali texts refer to sea-voyages
and of trading journeys to the coast of Burma, the Malay world (Suvarna-bhumi),
Ceylon (Tamraparni) and even to Babylon (Baveru). The principal sea-ports were
Bharukachcha (Broach) Suparaka (Sopara, north of Bombay) and Tamralipti (Tamluk
in West Bengal).
Of the riparian ports, Sahajati (in
Central India), Kausambi on the Yamuna, Banaras, Champa and later Pataliputra
on the Ganges and Pattala on the Indus, deserve special mention. The great
inland routes mostly radiated from Banaras and Sravasti. The chief articles of
trade were silk, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and gold.
Introduction of Coinage:
Besides others, these cities
began to use coins made of metals for the first time. The earliest coins belong
to the fifth century B.C. and they are called punch-marked coins. The standard
unit of value was the copper Karshapana weighing a little more than 146 grains.
Silver coins were also in circulation.
Economic Growth:
The period of second urbanisation
(6th century B.C. to 3rd century B.C.) noticed large-scale beginning of town
life in the middle Gangetic basin. The widespread use of iron tools and weapons
helped the formation large of territorial states.
The towns became good markets and
both artisans and merchants were organised into guilds under their respective
headmen. Eighteen of the more important crafts were organised into guilds
(Sreni, Puga), each of which was presided over by a Pramukha (foreman),
Jyeshthaka (elder) or Sresthin (chief). Sarathavaha was the caravan-leader.
The system of barter was also prevalent. This led to localisation of crafts and
industries and the emerging of artisans and merchants as important social
groups.
Spread of Jainism and Buddhism:
The changing features of social
and economic life, such as the growth of towns, expansion of the artisan class,
and the rapid development of trade and commerce were closely linked with
changes in another sphere; that of religion and philosophical speculation.
The intellectual and
philosophical response to these social changes was rich and varied marking a
high point in philosophical achievements which remained unsurpassed in later
centuries. All the major ideas of Indian philosophy can be seen, at least in
rudimentary form in the 6th century B.C. The period was characterised by the
parivrajakas or sramanas who renounced their household status.
They wandered about from place to
place with the object of meeting and having discussions with others like them.
It is through this ceaseless movement that they propagated their ideas and
built up their following.
What united ail the sramanas
together was their opposition to the established tradition of the Brahmins
based on the cult of sacrifice, central to the ideology of the latter. They
were also opposed to the claims of the brahmana’s pre-eminence in society and
for these reasons they have been described as non-conformist sects or heterodox
sects.
The ideas themselves spanned an
entire range from annihilationism (Ucchedavada) to eternalism (Sashvat-vada)
and from the fatalism of the Ajivikas to materialism of the Charavakas.
We hear of as many as 62
religious sects which arose in the middle Gangetic plains in the sixth century
B.C. Of these sects, Jainism and Buddhism were the most important, and they
emerged as the most potent religious reform movements.
Causes for the rise and growth
of heterodox sects:
1. The varna-divided society
seems to have generated tensions during the sixth century B.C. The Kshatriyas
who functioned as rulers, reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination
of the brahmanas and seem to have led a kind of protest movement against the
importance attached to the birth in the varna system. The kshatriya reaction
against the domination of the priestly class called brahmanas, who claimed
various privileges, was one of the causes of the origin of new religions.
2. The agricultural economy based
on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks, and it could not flourish
without animal husbandry. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle
indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of new
agriculture.
3. The increase in trade and
commerce added to the importance of the vaishyas. The vaishyas being ranked
third in the brahmanical society, looked for some religion which could improve
their position.
4. The new forms of property
created social inequalities, and caused misery and suffering to the masses of
the people. So the common people yearned to return to primitive life. They
wanted to get back to the ascetic ideal which dispensed with the new forms of
property and the new style of life.
Jainism:
The origin of Jainism is shrouded
in mystery. The names of two Jain tirthankaras Rishabha and Arishtanemi, are
found in the Rig Veda. The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe
Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana.
The Jainas believe that their
most important religious teacher Mahavira was not the founder of a new
religious system, but the last of a long succession of twenty-four tirthankaras
or “ford-makers across the stream of existence.
“Perhaps the mythology of the
tirthankaras most of whom were born in the middle Ganga basin and attained
nirvana in Bihar, seems to have been created to give antiquity to Jainism.
Not much is known about the first
twenty-two tirthankaras except Parsvanatha (twenty-third and the immediate
predecessor of Mahavira), who seems to have been a historical figure. He was
the son of king Asvasena of Banaras, and enjoined on his disciples the four
great vows of non-injury (ahimsa), truthfullness (satya), non-stealing (asateya),
and non-possession (aparigraha).
To these, Mahavira added the vow
of brahmacharya or continence. The tirthankaras are known by their names and
symbols such as 1 st-Rishabha – bull, 2nd – Ajita-elephant, 22nd – Arishtanemi
– Conchshell, 23rd – Parsvanatha – hooded snake and 24th – Mahavira – lion.
Vardhamana Mahavira:
Vardhamana Mahavira was born in
540 B.C. in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali which is identical with Basarh
in the district of Vaishali, in north Bihar. His father Siddartha was the head of
the Jnatrika clan and his mother Trishala was the sister of the Lichchhavi
chief Chetaka, whose daughter Chellana was wedded to Bimbisara. Thus Mahavira’s
family was connected with the royal family of Magadha.
Mahavira was married to Yashoda,
by whom he had a daughter, Annoja. In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of a
householder, but in the search for truth he abandoned his family at the age of
30 years and became an ascetic. For twelve long years, he wandered from place
to place doing penance.
In the 13th year, at the age of
42 he attained omniscience (Kaivalya) under a Sal tree near village
Jrimbhikagrama, on the northern bank of the river Rijupalika. He was now a
Kevalin (Omniscient), a Jina (conqueror) and Mahavira (the great hero).
He became the head of a sect
called Nigranthas (free from fetters), known in later times as Jainas or
followers of the Jina (conqueror). For thirty years he wandered about as a
religious teacher and died by self starvation (Sallekana) at Pava in South
Bihar at the age of seventy-two.
Teachings of Mahavira:
1. Mahavira rejected the
authority of the Vedas, the Vedic rituals and the Brahmin supremacy. He
advocated an austere and simple life with the ultimate aim to attain Kaivalya
(nirvana or moksha).
2. Mahavira recognised the
existence of the God but placed them lower than the jina.
3. Mahavira did not condemn the
Varna system and according to him, a person is born in a high or in a low Varna
in consequence of the sins or the virtues acquired by him in the previous
birth.
4. He believed in Karma and
transmigration of soul (atma). The attainment of freedom from worldly bonds can
be obtained through knowledge, right faith and right action. These three are
considered to be the three jewels or triratna of Jainism.
5. Mahavira added the doctrine of
brahmacharya or continence to the four doctrines viz. ahimsa, satya, asateya
and aparigraha prescribed by Parsvanatha. Though Parsvanatha, the predecessor
of Mahavira asked his followers to cover their body, Mahavira asked them to discard
clothes altogether. This implies that he asked his followers to lead a more
austere life.
6. Mahavira regarded all objects,
animate or inanimate, as endowed with various degrees of consciousness. They
possess life and feel pain on the infliction of injuries.
Schisms in Jainism and Jaina
councils:
The cause of the spread of
Jainism in South India is said to be the great famine that took place in
Magadha 200 years after the death of Mahavira. The famine lasted for twelve
years, and in order to protect themselves many Jaina monks went to the south
under the leadership of Bhadrabahu (Chandragupta Maurya also accompanied him),
but the rest of them stayed back in Magadha under the leadership of Sthulabahu.
At the end of the famine they
came back to Magadha, where they developed differences with the local Jainas.
The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of
Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or
naked, southerns) and Svetambaras (white-clad, Magadhans).
In the later centuries, further
splits took place in both Digambaras and Svetambaras. Samaiyas broke away from
the former and Terapantis from the latter. Both these new groups renounced idol
worship and worshipped only the scriptures.
The first Jaina council was held
at Pataliputra under the leadership of Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third
century B.C. and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas (sections) to replace
the lost 14 Purvas (old texts). The Digambaras boycotted the council and
refused to accept its decisions.
The second council was held at
Valabhi in Gujarat in the fifth century A.D. by the Svetambaras under the
leadership of Devardhi Kshamasramana, and resulted in the final compilation of
the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
Jaina Church:
Mahavira himself founded the
Jaina Church. He had eleven ardent disciples called ganadharas (heads of
schools), ten of whom died in Mahavira’s life time. Only one of them, Arya
Sudharman, survived and became the first thera (pontiff) of the Jaina Church
after his death.
His successor, Jambu held the
office for 44 years. During the reign of the last Nanda of Magadha, the Jaina
Church was presided by the fifth thera, Sambhutavijaya and the sixth thera,
Bhadrabahu. The fourteen Purvas (the old scriptures) which Mahavira himself had
taught to his (ganadharas) were perfected by Sambhutavijaya and Bhadrabahu.
For the history of the Jaina
Church, from its inception to the fourth or third century B.C. we are indebted
to the Jaina Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, who was the sixth thera after Mahavira
and was a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya.
Jaina Philosophy:
Jainism is a philosophy based on
the teaching of Mahavira. It takes Reality to be a multiple comprising two main
kinds of objects; Jivas (souls) and the Ajivas (non-souls). The Jivas are
infinite in number, varying in their capacity for knowledge, power and joy. The
essence of Jiva is consciousness, power and bliss.
Potentially, every Jiva has these
qualities in infinite magnitude but actually it displays them in varying
degrees, being over-powered by the material particles of karma-pudgala with
which the souls are intermixed. Under the category of Ajiva come matter, space,
motion, (dharma), rest (adharma) and time (kala). Both the Jivas and Ajivas have
been existing eternally.
The world was never created. It
is eternal. Its existence is divided into an infinite number of cycles, each
consisting of a period of improvement (utsarpini), and one of decline
(avasarpini). We are now in the phase of decline, which is divided into six
periods. Jainas do not, therefore, believe in the existence of a Creator.
Instead of believing in God, they
believe in the existence of perfected souls abiding in the highest region of
the world with fully developed consciousness, power and bliss. The reality has
an infinite number of aspects and attributes (anantadharmatrnakameva tattvam).
This doctrine of Jaina philosophy is called Anekantavada.
The Jaina doctrine of Syadvada
asserts that statements must be made with caution, keeping in view that they
cannot be absolute and that opposite statements are possible and seven modes of
prediction (Saptabhangi) are possible. The doctrine of Syadvada shows a close
affinity with Samkhya system of philosophy.
Closely related to the Syadvada
is Nayavada (the doctrine of view points), which shows the seven ways of
approaching an object of knowledge. Jainism recognizes five sources and kinds
of knowledge: Mati, knowledge obtained through sense-perception and inference;
sruti, knowledge conveyed by others through intelligible symbols; Avadhi,
acquired by some supernormal means, Manahpryaya, gained by means of telepathy;
and Kevala Jnaria, knowledge of perfected souls who have acquired omniscience.
The Jainas lay great emphasis on Ahimsa (non-violence), both in theory and
practice.
To attain Nirvana, a man must
abandon all trammels, including his clothes. Only by a long course of fasting,
self-mortification, study and meditation, can he rid himself of Karma. Hence a
monastic life is essential for salvation.
Spread of Jainism:
Since Jainism did not very
clearly mark itself out from the brahmanical religion, it failed to attract the
masses. Despite this, Jainism gradually spread into south and west India. The
early Jainas discarded Sanskrit language mainly oatronized by the brahmanas.
They adopted Prakrit language of the common people to preach their doctrines.
Their religious literature was
written in Ardha-magadhi. Udayin, the successor of Ajatashatru of Magadha, was
a devout Jaina and so were the Nanda rulers. Chandragupta Maurya became a
Jaina, gave up his throne and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as
a Jaina ascetic.
Jainism spread to Kalinga in
Orissa in the fourth century B.C. and in the first century B.C. it enjoyed the
patronage of the Kalinga king Kharavela. In the Kushana period, it flourished
well at Mathura and was dominant in eastern India in the time of Harsha.
During the early centuries of the
Christian era, Mathura in the north and Sravana-Belgola in the south were great
centres of Jaina activities. From the fifth century A.D. onwards many royal
dynasties of South India, such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and
the Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism. Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed their
Mahapurana at the time of King Amoghavarsha, whose great Jaina work Ratnamalika
became very popular.
In later centuries Jainism
penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Chalukyan king of Solanki,
Siddharaja (1094-1143), also known as Jayasimha professed Jainism and his
successor Kumarapala were great patrons of Jainism.
Jaina Literature:
Jaina literature was written in
Ardhamagadhi form of Prakrit, and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth
century A.D. in Gujarat at a place called Valabhi, a great centre of education.
The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language and
its literature. Many regional languages developed out of Prakrit languages,
particularly Shauraseni, out of which grew the Marathi language. The Jainas
composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first
grammar.
Jaina Canonical Texts:
The sacred literature of the
Svetambaras written in the Ardha-Magadhi form of Prakrit, may be classified
into twelve Angas twelve Upangas, ten Prakirna, six Chhedasutras, four
Mulasutras. Of the 12 Angas, the Ayaramga-sutta (Acharanga sutra) deals with the
rules of conduct which a Jaina monk was to follow; Sutrakritanga is mainly
devoted to a refutation of the heretic doctrines; the Bhagavatiis one of the
most important Jaina canonical texts and it contains a comprehensive exposition
of the Jaina doctrine.
The 12 Upangas are mostly
dogmatic and mythological in character. The 10 Prakrinas deal with various
doctrinal matters and are written in verse. The six Chhedasutras deal with
disciplinary rules for monks and nuns. The best known work is Kalpasutra, attributed
to Bhadrabahu.
The Kalpasutra forms a part of
the fourth Chhedasutra and consists of three sections, the first called the
Jainacharita contains the biographies of the twenty-three tirthankaraswho
preceded Mahavira; the second section consists of the Theravali, a list of
ganas and their ganadharas (heads); the third section contains the Samachari or
the rules for the Jaina monks.
Non-canonical works:
It consists of commentaries,
stories, historical works, semi-historical works, romantic works and religious
lyrics. Commentaries to the canonical texts form the most significant part of
non-canonical literature. The oldest of these, called Niryuktis may be traced
as far back as the time of Bhadrabahu.
These were later developed into
elaborate Bhasyas and Churnis written in Prakrit, and Tikas and Vrittis written
in Sanskrit. The important Jaina commentators were Haribhadra (9th A.D.),
Santisuri, Devendragani and Abhayadeva who lived in 11th century A. D. The
Kathakosa is a rich mine of stories. It contains the Jaina version of the
Nala-Damayanti episode of the Mahabharata.
The Jainas further possess an
extensive poetic literature called Prabandhas and Charitras. The former give an
account of historical Jaina monks and laymen while the latter narrates the
stores of tirthankaras and mythical sages. One of the most famous works is
Trisastisalaka Purushacharita (lives of 63 best men) by Hemachandra, which
ranks as a Mahakavya among the Jainas.
The book is divided into ten
Parvas of which the last parva, Mahaviracharita deals with the life of
Mahavira. From the point of view of literary history, the appendix to this
book, Parisistaparvan or Sthaviravalicharita, the biography of the earliest
teachers of Jainism, is more valuable.
Semi-historical works like
Prabandhachitamani of Merutunga (1306 A.D.) and the Prabandhakosa of
Rajasekhara (1349 A.D.) are important. The Digambaras styled the Charitras as
Puranas, for instance Padmacharita or Padmapurana by Vimalasuri. Jinasena
wrote Harivamsapurana which was completed in 783 A.D.
The Jainas possess many prose
romances like the Samaraichchakaha of Haribhadra and
Upamitibha-Vaprapanchakatha ofSiddharshi (906 A.D.).
Jaina Architecture:
1. The gigantic statues of
Bahubali (called Gomatesvara) at Sravana Belgola and Karkal in Mysore are among
the wonders of the world. The former statue, 56.5 feet high, carved out of a
granite mass, standing at the top of a hill was erected in 982 A.D. by
Chamundaraya, the minister of a Ganga ruler, Rachamalla.
2. The image of a tirthankara
from Lohanipura (Patna) dating back to the Maurya period is one of the earliest
Jaina figures.
3. The Hathigumpha caves of
Kharavela (2nd century B.C.) and the Khandagiri and Udaigiri cave of Orissa
contain early relics. Ellora in Maharashtra with Jaina relief works and statues
represents the examples of excellent architecture and sculpture of this
period.
4. During the Kushana period,
Mathura was a great centre of Jaina art.
5. The Jaina temples at Ranakpur,
and the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, both in Rajasthan are the products of
superb Jaina craftsmanship.
Buddhism and Gautama Buddha:
Among the notable contemporaries
of Mahavira was Gautam Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. His name was Siddhartha
and he belonged to the Gautama gotra. He was born in 563 B.C. in Lumbini (now
in Nepal) in the Shakya Kshatriya clan of Kapilvastu.
The site of his nativity is
marked by the celebrated Rumnindei Pillar of Asoka Maurya. He was the son of
Suddhodana, who seems to have been the elected ruler of Kapilvastu, and headed
the republican clan of the Shakyas. His mother, Maya was a princes of Devadaha,
a small town in the Shakya territory.
Maya died in child-birth and the
little Siddhartha was brought up by his aunt and stepmother Prajapati Gautami.
At the age of sixteen the prince was married to a lady known to tradition as
Bhadda Kachchana, Yasodhara, Subhadraka, Bimbaor Gopa.
Since his early childhood Gautama
showed a meditative bent of mind. The sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead
body and an ascetic (the Four Great signs) intensified Gautama’s deep hatred
for the world and made him realise the holowness of worldly pleasure.
At the birth of his son Rahula,
he left home at the age of twenty-nine in search of the Truth. This departure
is known as ‘The Great Renunciation’ (mahabhinshkramana). For six years he
lived as a homeless ascetic, seeking instruction under two religious teachers
Alara Kalama (at Vaishali) and Uddaka or Ramaputta (at Rajagriha) and visiting
many places. At Uruvela, he practised the most rigid austerities only to find
that they were of no help to him in reaching his goal.
He then took a bath in the stream
of the river Niranjana, modern Lilajan, and sat under a pipal tree at modern
Bodh Gaya. Here, at last at the age of 35 he attained unto supreme knowledge
and became known as the Buddha or the enlightened one, ‘Tathagata’ (he who had
attained the truth) and Sakya-Muni or the sage of Sakya clan.
He gave his first sermon at
Isipatana, the deer park at Sarnath. This sermon was called the “Dharma Chakra
Pravartana” or “turning of the wheel of law”. For forty-five years he roamed
about as a wandering teacher and proclaimed his gospel to the princes and
people and laid the foundation of the Buddhist Order of monks (Sangha). Gautama
Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at a place called Kusinagar,
identical with the village called Kasia in the district of Deoria in eastern
Uttar Pradesh.
Doctrines of Buddhism:
Buddha proved to be a practical
reformer who took note of the realities of the day. He did not involve himself
in fruitless controversies regarding the soul (atman) and the Brahma which
raged strongly in his time; he addressed himself to the worldly problems.
Buddha taught his followers the
Four “Noble Truths” (Arya Satya):
(1) The World is full of sorrows
(dukkha),
(2) The cause of sorrow in desire
(trishna)
(3) If desires are conquered, all
sorrows can be removed and
(4) The only way this can be done
is by following the “Middle-Path” (ashtangika marga). It comprised right
observation, right determination, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right exercise, right memory and right meditation.
According to Buddha’s teachings,
anyone who follows this path, considered as the ‘middle path’, (madhyama
pratipad), would attain salvation irrespective of his social position. The
striving for salvation requires in the first place the observance of the Silas
or moralities, the next requisite is Samadhi or concentration and finally
Prajna or insight. These ultimately lead to Sambodhi (enlightenment) and
Nirvana.
Another doctrine on which Buddha
laid great emphasis is the law of Karma, its working and the transmigration of
soul. Like the Jainas, he rejected the authority of the Vedas. The Buddha may
be called an agnostic, because he neither accepts nor rejects the existence of
God. According to Buddha, all things are composite, and as a corollary, all
things are transient, for the composition of all aggregates is liable to
change.
Whatever is transient is painful,
and where change and sorrow prevail, the question of a permanent immortal soul
does not arise. This three-fold characterisation of the nature of the world and
all that it contains – anicca (transiency), dukka (sorrow), and anatta
(soullessness).
There is nothing like an enduring
self in a man, who is composed of five groups (Skandha) of physical and mental
factors called Rupa (form), Samjna (Name), Vedana (sentations), Vijnana
(consciousness) and Samskara (Disposition).
Thus the individual is made up of
a combination of these five components, which are never the same from one
moment to the next, and therefore his whole being is in a state of constant
flux.
According to Buddha, every effect
is caused and every cause has an effect. The Buddha discovered the
twelve-linked chain of causation (Patichchha-Samuppada) which is Ignorance
(Avidya), Impressions of past actions (Samaskaras), Consciousness (Vijnana),
Psychophysical organism (Nama- rapa), Sense-organs with objects (Sparsa),
Sensations (Vedana), Thirst for sense-enjoyments (trsna), Clinging to the
enjoyments (Upadana), Will to be born (Bhava), Birth or Rebirth (Jatli) and Old
age and Death (Jara-marana).
The Buddhist Sangha or Church:
The Buddha had two kinds of
disciples-monks (bhikshus or shramanas) and lay worshippers (upasakas). The
former were organised into the Sangha or congregation. The membership of the Sangha
was open to all persons, male or female above fifteen years of age and who were
free from leprosy, consumption and other infectious diseases.
Persons who were in the service
of the king or an individual, or who were in debt, or had been branded as robbers
or criminals were refused admission into the Sangha. There were no caste
restrictions. Monasteries were constructed for the accommodation of monks and
nuns for carrying on their studies and meditation, which gradually developed
into academic centers.
Every Buddhist monk has to be a
Sramne before being ordained as a full-fledged member of the Sangha. The higher
ordination or Bhikshus is called upasampada. Whenever a new person, desired to
join the Sangha, he or she had to shave his or her head, put on a yellow robe
and take the oaths of fidelity to the triratna, viz. the Buddha, the Dhamma and
the Sangha.
The Sangha was governed on
democratic lines and was empowered ‘to enforce discipline among its member. The
monks of a monastery were to hold a fortnight assembly, were to elect their
president (Sanghaparinayaka), and to select two speakers, one on dhamma and the
other on Vinaya.
In the assembly meetings, there
were the systems of formal moving of resolution (Jnapati) and ballot voting by
means of wodden sticks (salaka). No assembly was valid unless at least ten
monks were present, novices and women were nor entitled to vote or to
constitute the quorum.
Buddhist Councils:
First Council:
Shortly after the Buddha’s death
(483 B.C.), it was held at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha under the auspices of
king Ajatasatru and was presided by Mahakassapa. Its purpose was to compile the
dhamma (religious doctrines) and the Vinaya (monastic code). It resulted in the
settlement of the Sutta Pitaka (Buddhas sermons on matters of doctrine and
ethics) and the (Vinaya Pitaka (monastic code or rules of the order) by Ananda
and Upali respectively.
Second Council:
Held at Vaishali, one hundred
years after the Buddha’s death in the reign of Kalasoka of the Sisunaga
dynasty, it was probably presided over by Sabakami. Over small points of
monastic discipline, the Buddhist order broke into the orthodox Sthaviravadins
(or Theravadi) or “Believers in the Teachings of the Elders”, and the
unorthodox Mahasanghikas or members of the Great Community”.
Third Council:
The third council was held at
Pataliputra in the reign of Asoka (around 250 B.C.) and was presided over by
Moggaliputta Tissa. It resulted in the expulsion of many many heretics and the
establishment of the Sthaviravada School as orthodox.
The council made a new
classification of the Buddhist canonical texts by the addition of a third
Pitaka called the Abhidhamma Pitka which contained the philosophical
interpretations of the doctrines of the two already existing Pitakas. As a
result of this, the sayings and discourses of the Buddha now came to be known
as the Tripitaka.
Fourth Council:
The Fourth and the last Buddhist
Council was held in Kashmir under the leadership of Vasumitra who was helped by
Asvaghosha during the reign of Kanishka. Its purpose was to settle the
differences among all the 18 sects of Buddhism and to compose the commentaries.
Its results were:
(a) Division of all the Buddhists
into two major sects, with Sarvastivadins (Popular in Kashmir and Mathura
regions) and Mahasanghikas together forming the Mahayanists (followers of the
Greater Vehicle), and the rest, including Sthaviravadins forming the Hinayanists
(followers of the lesser Vehicle)
(b) Codification of the
Sarvastivadin doctrines as Mahavibhasa and
(c) Conduct of the deliberations
of the Council is Sanskrit instead of Pali.
The Buddhist Scriptures:
The sacred scriptures of the
Buddhists are in Pali. The word Pali means simply ‘text’ or ‘sacred text’. As a
language, Pali is an archaic Prakrit and in the days of Buddha was the spoken
language of the Magadha and adjoining territories. The Buddhist scriptures in
Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitaka, i.e. Threefold Basket’, which
consists of:
I. Vinay Pitaka
II. Sutta Pitaka
III. Abhidhamma Pitaka
I. The Vinaya Pitaka:
It contains pronouncements
attributed to the Buddha, laying down numerous rules for the conduct of the
Order. Supplementing this, the Mahavagga, ‘Great Section’, lays down rules for
admission to the monastic order, regulations on dress, etc. The Chullavagga,
‘Smaller Section’, contains duties for monks and nuns, edifying Buddhist
stories, methods of settling disputes among monks, etc.
II. The Sutta Pitaka:
The largest and most important of
the ‘Three Baskets” is the Sutta Pitaka which consists chiefly of discourses
both small and long as delivered by the Buddha himself. It is divided into five
groups called Nikaya. They are:
(1) Digha (Long) Nikaya – a
collection of long sermons ascribed to the Buddha including the Buddha’s last
speeches and an account of his death and the funeral ceremonies.
(2) Majjhima (Medium) Nikaya – a
collection of medium sized sermons
(3) Samyutta (connected) Nikaya –
discusses Buddhist doctrines.
(4) Anguttara (Graduated) Nikaya
– a collection of over 2,000 brief statements, arranged artificially in eleven
sections, enumerating doctrines and principles;
(5) Khuddaka (minor) Nikaya –
miscellaneous works in prose and verse added later to the canon than the four
other Nikayas. It comprises fifteen books of miscellanea which are essential
for an understanding of Buddhism. The principal texts of the Khuddaka-Nikaya
are often taken to include a few of the most extensive of the Pali canonical
writings. The important ones are given:
(a) The Khuddaka Patha – It is a
book for youngsters when they join the Sangha.
(b) The Dhammapada (“Verses on
Virtue”) – The best known of the canonical texts, it is a collection of
aphoristic verses garnered from the sayings of Buddha. It is regarded as one of
the great religious texts of the world.
(c) The Suttanipata – It
preserves many fragments of the oldest Buddhist poetry and gives valuable
information on the social and religious conditions of Buddha’s time.
(d) The Jataka – It is a
collection of over 500 poems, briefly outlining folk-tales and other stories.
(e) The Bhuddhavamsa – It records
legends in verse about the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier
times.
(f) The Theragatha – Literally
meaning “Hymns of the elder Monks” it contains some of the India’s greatest
religious poetry, and
(g) The Therigatha – The Hymns of
the Nuns.
III. The Abhidhamma Pitaka. It
consists of a number of drily pedantic works on Buddhist psychology and
metaphysics. Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a good exposition
of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics; and the Kathavatthu, ascribed to
Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable for the light it throws on the evolution of
Buddhist dogmas.
Non-Canonical Pali Texts:
These were composed during the
Kushana periods. Promininet works are “Milindapanho” (Questions of Menander)
which gives on account of the discussions of the Greek King, Menander and the
monk Nagasena; ‘Mahavastu, Great Subject, – it presents some Hinayana doctrines
along with additional metaphysics of the Mahasanghika sects; the Lalitavistara
(30 B.C.) an anonymous biography of Buddha written in the Gatha (Sanskritized
Prakrit) form of language, it contains some Hinayana material, but is largely
Mahayanist and the verse chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa which tell the
history of Buddhism in Ceylon; and give valuable information on political and
social history also.
Of these the earliest, Dipavamsa
(the “Island Chronicle”) dates from the 4th century A.D; and has no literary
merit, but the Mahavamsa (“Great Chronicle”) of the following century, composed
by the monk Mahanama contains passages of beauty and vigour. It was continued
as the Culvamsa (“Lesser Chronicle”) by a succession of monks down to the fall
of the kingdom of Kandy to the British.
The bulk of the Buddhist
literature in Pali belongs to the Hinayana school and hence the Pali canon are
spoken as the Hinayana Canon.
Sanskrit Texts:
With the rise of Mahayanism,
Sanskrit was adopted by the Mahayanist School. There are a few Sanskrit texts
belonging to the Hinayana School. The bulk of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit
belongs to the Mahayana School.
Among the Mahayana Sutras, the
following texts or dharmas, also called the Vaipulya Sutras (“Expanded
Sermons”) are regarded as the most important.
1. Prajna-Praramita:
It is the most important
philosophical work of the Mahayana school which deals especially with the notion
of Sunya or nothingness. According to it, beyond this impermanent and illusory
world is a new world of freedom, which one can attain with the aid of Prajna or
intuitive and transcendental wisdom.
2. Sadharma-Pundarika (250
A.D.):
The Lotus of the Good Law’, also
called the Lotus Sutra, has been described as the Bible of half-Asia. It is of
unknown authorship and is the most important of all the Sutras. It contains all
the characteristic features of Mahayana school and has the sermon delivered by
a transfigured and glorified Buddha on the Gridharkuta mountain to an august
assembly.
3. Avatamsaka:
Supposed to be the teaching given
by Buddha three weeks after his enlightenment, it contains the doctrine of
‘interpenetration’. The twenty-fifth chapter expounds the doctrine of
Parinamana, the ‘transference’ of merit, whereby one’s merit can be turned over
for the Salvation of others.
4. Gandha-Vyuha:
It is actually a part of the
above Avatamsaka Sutra, but is often called a Sutra in its own right.
5. Sukhavati-Vyuha:
Deals with the subject of
salvation through faith in Amitabha.
6. Vajrachhedika or the Diamond Sutra, which
expounds the doctrine of Sunyata and clarifies several other concepts central
to Mahayana.
7. Mahapari:
Nirvana
8. Lankavatara – (400 A.D.):
Supposedly wrtitten by
Vasubandhu, it teaches ultimate reality of mind alone.
9. Surangama:
ltoutlinesthe means of attaining
enlightenment by concentration and meditation.
Expansion and Development of
Buddhism:
The emergence of Asoka, The Great,
(273-232 B.C.) was an important turning point in the history of Buddhism, who
embraced Buddhism and made the Buddha dhamma the basis of all his actions in
the spiritual as well as temporal fields.
According to tradition, the Third
Buddhist Council was held by Asoka and missionaries were sent not only to South
India but also to Sri Lanka, Burma and other countries to propagate Buddhism
there. It is popularity further increased when the Greeks and the Kushans, who
established their hold over North-West India in the second century B.C. and
first century B.C. respectively, embraced Buddhism and did their utmost to
popularize it.
Of them, the names of the Greek
king Menander and the Kushana ruier, Kanishka are the most prominent. Harsha
(606-647 A.D.) was the last illustrious Buddhist ruler, and after his death
Buddhism declined rapidly. In the early medieval period, Buddhism was
prasctised by the Palas.
The period (200 B.C. to 700 A.D)
saw the emergence of a number of Buddhist saint-scholars who made an immense
contribution to the Buddhist phisosophy and religion. Asvaghosha, who was a
contemporary of Kanishka wrote Buddhacharita, a poetic biography of Buddha, and
probably was the aouthorof the Sraddhotpada.
Nagarjuna, who was a friend and
contemporary of the Satavahana King Yagnasri Gautampiputra (166 to 196 A.D.),
propounded the Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as
Sunyavada. Asanga was the most important teacher of the Yogacara or Vijnanavada
school founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha, in the fourth century A.D.
Vasubandhu, brother of Asanga wrote the Abhidhammakosa, an important
encyclopaedia of Buddhism.
Buddhaghosa (5th century A.D.)
wrote Visuddhimanga which is considered as key to the Tripitaka. Buddhapalita
and Bhavaviveka were important exponents of the Sunyavada doctrine in the fifth
century A.D. Dinnaga is well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic and
wrote about 100 treatises on logic in the fifth century A.D.
The Sunyavada doctrine was
further interpreted by distinguished thinkers like Aryadeva, Santideva,
Santaraksita and Kamalasila. Dharmakirti, who lived in the seventh century A.D.
was another great Buddhist logician. Acknowledging his unsurpassed genius Dr.
Stcherbarsky calls him the Kant of India.
Factors for the Rise of
Buddhism:
1. Since early Buddhism was not
enmeshed in the clap-trap of philosophical discussion, it appealed to the
common people. It particularly won the support of the lower orders as it
attacked the Varna system.
2. Women were also admitted to
the Sangha and thus brought on par with men. In comparison with Brahmanism,
Buddhism was liberal and democratic.
3. Buddhism made a special appeal
to the people of the non-Vedic areas where it found a virgin soul for
conversion, especially the people of Magadha responded readily to the Buddhism
because they were looked down upon by the orthodox brahmanas.
4. The personality of the Buddha
and the method adopted by him to preach his religion helped the spread of
Buddhism.
5. Royal patronage under Ashoka,
Kanishka and Harsha also helped the cause of Buddhism.
6. The use of Pali, the language
of the people, also contributed to the spread of Buddhism.
7. The Buddhist Sangha was also
responsible for the spread of Buddhism. Both the monks and the nuns coordinted
their efforts for the spread of Buddhism.
The Buddhist monasteries or
Viharas became great centres of education and seekers of learning flocked there
to receive instructions at the feet of Bhikshus.
Causes for the Decline of
Buddhism:
1. One important cause of the
decline of Buddhism was the decline of the Buddhist Sangha. With the passage of
time, the Sangha became the hot bed of intrigues and corruption. Internal
dissensions proved to be the ruin of Buddhism.
2. Practising of idol worship and
receiving offerings and huge donations led to deterioration in moral standards
of the bhikshus.
3. The revival of Brahmanical
Hinduism also gave a setback to the cause of Buddhism.
4. Attack by the Hunas in the
fifth and sixth centuries A.D. and Turkish invaders in the 12th century A.D.
Thus, many causes were
responsible for the gradual decline and fall of Buddhism in the land of her
birth although it continued to flourish in countries beyond India for
centuries. Even today, it has a large number of followers all over the world.
Contribution of Buddhism:
1. With its emphasis on
non-violence and the sanctity of animal life, Buddhism boosted the cattle
wealth of the country. The earliest Buddhist text, Suttanipata, declares the
cattle to be givers of food, beauty and happiness, and thus pleads for their
protection. The brahmanical insistence on the sacredness of the cow and
non-violence was apparently derived from Buddhist teachings.
2. Buddhism created and developed
a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture. The place of
superstition was taken by logic and it promoted rationalism among people.
3. Promotion of Pali and many
local languages, such as Kannada, Gujar ati, etc.
The Buddhist monasteries
developed as great centers of learning, and began to be called residential
universities like those of Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar, Valabhi in
Gujarat, Taxila, and Nagarjuna Konda. In the field of architecture and art,
Buddhism takes the credit for: the first human statues to be worshipped; stone
panels depicting the life of the Buddha at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and
Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh; cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and
in western India around Nasik; art pieces of Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.
With Buddhist architecture was
particularly associated the Stupa, a domical structure of brick or stone
masonry. Shrines known as Chaityas with the votive Chaityas installed for
worship and prayer, as also monasteries (Viharas, Sangharamas), were essential
features of Buddhist religious establishments.
The Stupa was a conventional
representation of a funeral tumulus, evolved out of earthern funerary mound
(Smasana) in which the relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are
preserved. The Stupa at Sanchi comprises of an almost hemispherical dome (anda)
flattened at the top, supported on a low circular base (Medhi).
Over the dome is a square
pavilion called harmika (box) enclosed by a balustrade surrounding the sacred
parasol (chatra). Pradaksinapatha was the path for clockwise circumbulation
surrounded by a fence built encircling the stupa. The whole structure is
surrounded by a massive rail with four imposing gateways on the four sides.
The chaitya shrine in its typical
form was a long rectangular hall, apsidal at the rear end and divided into
three sections by two rows of pillars along the length of the hall meeting at
the back end. Rock cut chitya shrines are at Bhaja near Poona (2nd century B.C)
Kondane Pitalkhora, Bedsa, Nasik, Kanheri, Ajanta, Karle and other places in
Western India.
Fragmentary remains of many
monasteries (vihara) have been excavated in the north as well as in the south.
The monastery at Nalanda belongs to the fifth century A.D. and one at Paharpur
(Somapura Mahavihara) was established towards the close of the 8th or the
beginning of the 9th century.
Non-Buddhist Ascetic Orders:
There were, no doubt many
individual Parivrajakas wandering through the country, but it is doubtful if
there were many distinct sanghas, orders or organizations of these ascetics on
the lines of the Jain and Buddhist organization. In many passages of the
Buddhist scriptures we read of six unorthodox teachers, each of whom was the
leader of an important body of ascetics and lay followers.
The first of the teachers
mentioned, Purana Kassapo was an ‘antinomian’ who taught the doctrine of
Akirtya-vada (Non-action) i.e. the absence of merit in any virtuous action and
of demerit in the worst of crimes. He was called Purano for his fullness of
knowledge.
The second heretic, Makkhali
Gosala, was the leader of the Ajivikas sect, whose doctrine was the denial of
both karma and its effect. According to him, the whole universe was conditioned
and determined to the smallest detail by an impersonal cosmic principle, Niyati
or destiny. It was impossible to influence the course of transmigration in any
way.
The third heterodox teacher,
Ajita Kesakamblin, a contemporary of the Buddha, was the earliest known teacher
of complete materialism. His doctrine was that there was annihilation at death,
which shut out the possibility of any effect to be achieved by karma.
Pakudha Kachchayana, the fourth
teacher, was an atomist, a predecessor of the Hindu Vaishesika School. His
doctrine is stated to be: What is cannot be destroyed: out of Nothing emerges
Nothing”. His theory thus excludes Responsibility.
The fifth teacher, Nigantha
Nataputta, was none other than Vardhama Manavira, the founder of Jainism.
The sixth and last, Sanjay
Belatthaputta was a sceptic, who denied the possibility of certain knowledge
altogether.
Rise of Magadha and Nandas:
According to the Mahabharata and
the Puranas, the earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadradha, the father
of Jarasandha and son of Vasu. Magadha came into prominence under the
leadership of Bimbisara, who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty.
Haryanka Dynasty:
Bimbisara (544-492 B.C.):
The first important ruler of
Magadha was Bimbisara who was a contemporary of Buddha. He started the policy
of conquest and aggression.
1. Bimbisara annexed Anga and
placed it under the viceroyalty of Ajatashatru at Champa.
2. He was the earliest of the
Indian kings to stress the need for efficient administration.
3. Bimbisara consolidated his
power and influence by matrimonial alliances. His principal queen was
Kosaladevi, the sister of King Prasenjit of Kosala. He married Chellana, the
daughter of the Lichchhavi chief Chetaka. Khema, another wife of the king, was
a daughter of the king of Madra. His Kosalan wife brought Kasi as a dowry-gift.
4. Magadha’s most serious rival
was Avanti, whose king Chanda Pradyota Mahasena fought Bimbisara but ultimately
the two became friends. Later when Pradyota was attached by jaundice, at the Avanti
king’s request Bimbisara sent the royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain.
5. Bimbisara is also said to have
received an embassy and a letter from the ruler of Gandhara, Pukkusati.
6. He is described as Seniya ‘
with an army’, being perhaps the first king to have a regular standing army.
7. Ajatashatru, the son of
Bimbisara, impatient to rule Magadha, murdered his father in about 492 B.C. and
became king.
Ajatashatru (492-460 B.C.):
The beginning of the conflict
between Kosala and Magadha took place in the time of Ajatashatru. Reacting to
the murder of Bimbisara by Ajatashatru, Prasenjit revoked the gift of the Kashi
village which had formed part of his sister’s dowry. Therefore war took place
between Ajatashatru and Parasenjit.
Several battles were fought
without any lasting success for either. Ultimately Prasenjit was betrayed by
his own minister Dirghacharayana, who handed the royal insignia to Prasenjit’s
son and military command to Vidudabha.
Prasenjit died at Rajagriha and
Vidudabha along with his army was drowned by an untimely flood in the river
Rapti. Ajatashatru annexed the Kosala kingdom without fighting.
1. Ajatashatru strengthened
Rajagriha, the Magadhan capital, and built a small fort, Pataligrama in the
vicinity of the Ganges. This was later to became the famous Mauryan metropolis
of Pataliputra.
2. The Vajjian confederacy was
suppressed by Ajatashatru by sowing internal dissension among the Lichchhavis
with the help of his Brahman minister Vassakara. It took sixteen years to
suppress the Vajjians.
3. A description of the war
between the Magadhans and the Vajjains mentions the use of two weapons, viz.,
mahashilakantaka (a large-sized catapult used for hurling heavy pieces of
stone) and the rathamushala (a chariot with knives and cutting edges fixed to
it).
4. In religious tradition
Ajatashatru is remembered as a patron of Devadatta, the schismatic cousin of
the Buddha, and also as a friend of both the Jainas and the Buddhists.
5. After the death of Gautama
Buddha, he constructed Dhatuchaityas round Rajgriha. He repaired 18
mahaviharas. He helped the Buddhist monks to hold their first Buddhist Council
at Rajagriha under his patronage.
6. The story of Ajatashatru’s
interview with Buddha is also stated in the Bharhut sculptures of the second
century B.C.
Udayin (460-444 B.C.):
1. According to Buddhist writers
Ajatashatru was succeeded by his son Udayin.
2. Udayin had probably to fight
with the king of Avanti, but the most notable event of his reign was the
foundation of the capital city of Kusumpura or Pataliputra.
3. Udayin was succeeded by the
dynasty of Sisunagas.
Sisunaga Dynasty (444 B.C. to
396 B.C.):
The successors of Udayin were all
parricides, of whom the last was banished by the indignant citizens, who met
together and appointed as their king a worthy minister known by the name of
Sisunaga.
1. Sisunaga carried on the
forward policy of Magadha by the absorption of the powerful kingdom of Avanti
and thus the 100 years old rivalry between Avanti and Magadha came to an end.
2. Sisunaga temporarily shifted
the Magadhan capital to Vaishali.
3. Sisunaga’s successor, Kalasoka
or Kakavarnin, transferred his royal residence permanently from Girivraja to
Pataliputra, though Vaishali was occasionally graced by the presence of the
sovereign.
3. At Vaishali the second
Buddhist council was held during Kalasoka’s reign.
4. Kalasoka was murdered by
Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of the Nanda dynasty.
The Nanda Dynasty (345-322 B.C.):
The Sisunagas were succeeded by
the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers of Magadha. The founder
of this dynasty was Mahapadma or Mahapadmapati, “Sovereign of an infinite
host”, or “of immense wealth”, according to the Puranas. Regarding the
parentage of the first Nanda there are two traditions.
The Puranas represent him as son
of Mahanandin, the last king of the Sisunaga dynasty by a Sudra woman. Jaina
writers on the other hand, represent him as the son of a courtesan by a barber
which is strikingly supported by the testimony of Quintus Curtius.
In any case it remains true that
the Nandas were the first of a number of non-kshatriya ruling dynasties
Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the
east.
Mahapadma Nanda:
1. He claimed to be ekarat, the
sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.
2. The Hathigumpha inscription of
king Kharavela refers to the conquest of Kalinga by a ruler of the Nanda
dynasty. This occured in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda.
3. Mahapadma Nanda has been
described in the Puranas as the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas (Sarvakshatrantaka),
and as a second Parsurama or Bhargava.
4. According to Buddnist sources
Mahapadma Nanda reigned for about ten years and was succeeded by his eight
sons. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana-Nanda, the Agrammes or Xandrames of
classical writers.
He owned a vast treasure and
commanded a huge army of 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and
no less than 3,000 elephants. To maintain the huge force and amass the treasure
he had to resort to heavy taxation.
The Nanda rule in Magadha was supplanted
by that of the Mauryan dynasty under which the Magadhan Empire reached the apex
of glory.
Causes of Magadhan Supremacy:
The formation of the Magadhan
State during this period was the work of several enterprising and ambitious
rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda. Magadha enjoyed an
advantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because the richest iron
deposits were nor for away from Rajagriha. The ready availability of the rich
iron ores enabled the Magadhan kings to equip themselves with effective
weapons, which were not easily available to their rivals.
The two Magadhan capitals, the
first at Rajgriha and the second at Pataliputra were situated at very strategic
points. Rajagriha was surrounded by a group of five hills and so it was
rendered impregnable whereas Pataliputra were situated at the confluence of
the Ganga, theGandakand the Son, and a fourth river called the Ghagra joined
the Ganga nor far from Pataliputra. It facilitated communication of army.
Further, Pataliputra was a true water fort (Jaladurga) as it was surrounded by
rivers on almost all sides.
1. The area of Magadha was far
more productive as it lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain. The
fertile alluvial soil enabled the peasants to produce considerable surplus,
which could be mopped up by the rulers in the form of taxes.
2. Magadhan kings also benefitted
from the rise of towns and the use of metal money on account of trade and
commerce.
3. Magadha was the first kingdom
to use elephants on a large scale in its wars against its neighbours.
4. Finally the Magadhan society
being recently aryanised showed more enthusiasm for expansion than the
kingdoms which had been brought under the Vedic influence earlier.
Indian and Macedonian Invasions
and Their Impact:
Persian Invasion and
Consequences:
About the time when Bimisara
ruled in Magadha, a powerful kingdom rose in Persia under Cyrus (558-530 B.C.),
the founder of Achaemenian dynasty in Persia. He was a great conquerer who ex-
tended his power in the east to the borders of India.
The Persian domination in India
was further enlarged by Darius (522-486 B.C.). He annexed Gandhara, sent a
naval expedition to explore a sea passage from the mouth of Indus to Persia and
conquered the Indus Valley as far as the deserts of Rajputana.
The Indo-Persian contact lasted
for about 200 years. It gave an impetus to Indo-Persian trade and commerce.
Through the Iranians, the Greeks came to know about the great wealth of India
which eventually resulted in Alexander’s invasion of India.
The Persian scribes brought into
India a form of writing which came to be known as Kharosthi script. Persian
influence may also be traced in the preamble of Asoka’s edicts and in the
bell-shaped capital of Asoka’s pillars.
Greek Invasion-Alexander the
Great:
The invasion of India by
Alexander, the great king of Macedonia in 326 B.C. is an episode of early
Indian history. About the time of Alexander’s invasion, the Indus was the
official boundary of the Persian Empire, but there was no trace of Persian rule
anywhere in Punjab.
On the contrary, we learn from
the account of Greek writers that north western India was spilit up into a
number of small independent States like, Taxila, kingdom of Porus, kingdom of
Gandharas, etc. Except king Porus, who fought the famous battle of Hydaspas
(Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted meekly.
Alexander commemorated his
victory by the foundation of two towns: Nikaia and Boukephala. Alexander
advanced as far as river Beas but his soldiers, war-weary and disease-stricken,
refused to go farther. So he was forced to give orders of retreat. To mark the
farthest point of his advance, he erected twelve huge stone altars on the
northern bank of Beas.
The direct results of Alexander’s
invasion were small. India was not Hellenized. The only direct effect of
Alexander’s raid was the establishment of a number of Greek settlements in
north western India. But indirectly, Alexander’s expedition had an appreciable
influence on the history of the country.
Firstly, it exposed India to the
full gaze of Europe by opening up four distinct lines of communication, three
by land and one by sea. Secondly, as a result of the cultural contact, there
grew up in course of time, a cosmopolitan school of art in Gandhara, which was
largely inspired by the Hellenistic influence.
Thirdly, of Indian religions,
Buddhism was possibly modified by the influence of Greek religious ideas. An
immediate, though indirect, political result followed Alexander’s invasion. It
paved the way for the unification of northern India under Chandragupta by
weakening the small States and the turbulent tribes of the Indus Valley. The
date of Alexander’s invasion (326 B.C.) has been well described as the
sheet-anchor of Indian chronology.
